Frequency histogram showing the number of seropositive sera of patients (n = 359) at each MAT titer to different serovars.

<p>Frequency histogram showing the number of seropositive sera of patients (n = 359) at each MAT titer to different serovars.</p

Data_Sheet_1_Challenges of rabies surveillance in Madagascar based on a mixed method survey amongst veterinary health officers.docx

IntroductionIn Madagascar, rabies is endemic and a notifiable disease. The objective of this mixed study was to understand the challenges faced by the Veterinary Health Officers (VHOs) in the current rabies surveillance system in Madagascar.MethodsA survey was conducted from mid-April to the end of July 2021 during which all officially-listed VHOs (N = 150) were contacted by phone at least twice. Participants, representative of the 22 regions of Madagascar, were interviewed by phone based on a semi-structured questionnaire on (1) their knowledge of rabies epidemiology in their area of activities, (2) the occurrence of human and animal rabies and the species affected in the region where they work, (3) the factors that might influence rabies surveillance depending on (a) their activities and area of operation, (b) the socio-cultural aspects of local communities, and (c) the general organization of animal rabies surveillance.ResultsThe majority (80/90) of VHOs declared having been informed of at least one suspected or confirmed case of human and/or animal rabies in their area of activity during their work as VHOs: at least once a month for 11 of them, at least once a year for 40 and with undetermined frequency for 29. Several obstacles hinder the surveillance of rabies resulting in under-reporting. The lack of funds to access suspect animals, collect, pack and ship samples in compliance with biosecurity measures and the cold chain, was mentioned as a major obstacle to surveillance. The second barrier is socio-cultural: in many large coastal regions, dogs are taboo and VHOs fear rejection by the community if they treat dogs.Discussion and conclusionWhile the general population requires information on the rabies situation in Madagascar and on how to proceed in the event of a bite, veterinarians and decision-makers need to be fully aware of an evidence-based approach to rabies surveillance, prevention and control. Communication between the human and animal health sectors should be improved. Politicians need to be persuaded of the importance of funding to eliminate rabies in Madagascar. The adoption, in early 2023, of a national strategic plan for rabies control is a first step in this direction.</p

Frequencies of exposure variables, <i>Leptospira</i> seropositivity (any serovar) by exposure variable categories and the bivariable association (odds ratio, OR) between an exposure variable and seropositivity against any serovar (Any) and sv Nigeria (Ni) in 359 participants from Hoima District, Uganda.

<p>Frequencies of exposure variables, <i>Leptospira</i> seropositivity (any serovar) by exposure variable categories and the bivariable association (odds ratio, OR) between an exposure variable and seropositivity against any serovar (Any) and sv Nigeria (Ni) in 359 participants from Hoima District, Uganda.</p

Serovar panel, seroprevalence of <i>Leptospira</i> serovars and serogroups by Microscopic Agglutination Test (titer ≥1:100) among 359 humans sampled in Hoima, Uganda.

<p>Serovar panel, seroprevalence of <i>Leptospira</i> serovars and serogroups by Microscopic Agglutination Test (titer ≥1:100) among 359 humans sampled in Hoima, Uganda.</p

Multivariable logistic regression: significant effects on seroprevalence of <i>Leptospira interrogans</i> Bratislava, <i>L</i>. <i>borgpetersenii</i> Nigeria and of any serovar listed in Table 2 among 359 humans sampled in Hoima, Uganda.

<p>Multivariable logistic regression: significant effects on seroprevalence of <i>Leptospira interrogans</i> Bratislava, <i>L</i>. <i>borgpetersenii</i> Nigeria and of any serovar listed in <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004858#pntd.0004858.t002" target="_blank">Table 2</a> among 359 humans sampled in Hoima, Uganda.</p