Outcome-related neural activations during the reward task in fMRI.

<p>A main effect of outcome was observed in anterior mOFC, such that this region responded to all successful outcomes regardless of stimulus type (A). A conjunction of successful gains, losses, and controls showed common success-related activity in a specific portion of anterior mOFC (B). The y-axis reflects parameter estimates (beta weights), and black bars represent standard errors.</p

Pilot study results of emotion ratings during the reward task.

<p>Participants gave ratings of each of 4 emotions on a 1–5 scale for the last outcome they had experienced. Ratings occurred randomly every 4–8 trials and were presented in a random order for each type of emotion. Ratings of positive emotions joy/excitement and calm/relief by stimulus type and outcome (A). Ratings of negative emotions agitation/frustration and dejection/disappointment by stimulus type and outcome (B). Black bars represent standard errors.</p

An interaction of stimulus and outcome was observed in two regions.

<p>Pregenual ACC specifically differentiated the reception of monetary gains (A), whereas NAcc differentiated only monetary successes, gains and non-losses, from failures (B). The y-axis reflects parameter estimates (beta weights), and black bars represent standard errors.</p

Example trial of the reward task.

<p>Stimuli were presented randomly for 1000ms. During this time, participants made a response by pressing a button corresponding to each stimulus type. A legend of the response options always appeared at the bottom of the screen. This was followed by 3000ms of feedback, which showed the outcome for each trial. Trials were separated by a fixation cross of variable length.</p

Summary of neural activations observed for each F-test performed.

<p>All activations meet the criteria of p<.001 and a cluster size of at least 18 contiguous voxels.</p

Relationships between the fourth glycemic variability cycle (GVC₄) and conventional measures of glycemic control.

<p>The degree of glycemic variability within GVC₄ was highly correlated with SD (A) and MAGE (B), but the areas under the curves of GVC₄ and GVC₅ were greater than SD and MAGE (C). The degree of glycemic variability within GVC₄ was highly correlated several markers of glucose control including HbA1c (D). As with GVC₄ (the cycle linked with meal intake), the example in this figure, similar relationships were observed for all other GVC cycles. The <i>r²</i> and <i>P</i> values represent the least square model fit.</p

Examples of least squares models indicating negative relationships between Multi-Scale GV and regional GM volumes as well as cognitive performance.

<p>(A) relationship between GVC₂ and GM volume in the left insular cortex; (B) relationship between GVC₁ and GM volume in the right fusiform gyrus; (C) relationship between GVC₂ and GM volume in the left cingulate gyrus; (D) relationship between GVC₂ and overall cognitive performance (composite T score) (diabetics: triangles; controls: circles). We presented <i>r²</i> for the entire model adjusted for age and sex and group, and <i>P</i> values for the specific effect of Multi-scale GV.</p

Day and night Multi-Scale Glycemic Variability in older adults with and without type 2 DM As compared to controls, the type 2 DM group had greater variability during the day in GVC_2–5, and night GVC_3–5.

<p>At night, glycemic variability declined in type 2 DM in GVC_2–4 and in controls in GVC₃. ‘*’ (<i>P</i> = 0.002) and ‘‡’ (<i>P</i><0.0001) indicate significant differences between diabetics/day and controls/day; ‘∥∥’ (<i>P</i><0.0001) indicates significant differences between diabetics/night and controls/night; ‘†’ (<i>P</i> = 0.003) and ‘§’ (<i>P</i><0.0001) indicates significant differences between diabetics/day and diabetics/night; ‘¶’ (<i>P</i> = 0.028) indicates significant difference between control/day and control/night. All the <i>P</i> values were obtained by ANOVA. Results are presented as mean ± SEM.</p

The brain regions associated with Multi-Scale GV.

<p>Higher glycemic variability of GVC_1–3 (period 0.5–2 hours) were associated with lower gray matter (GM) volume (red color; both hemispheres in the cingulate gyrus, hippocampal gyrus, middle and inferior temporal gyrus, insular cortex, the left superior parietal gyrus and right fusiform gyrus), greater GM volume (blue color; the bilateral supramarginal gyrus, left angular gyrus and left middle orbitofrontal gyrus), and greater cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the right lingual gyrus (green color).</p

Group differences of regional GM volumes in left hemisphere and their relationship with Multi-Scale GV.

<p>‘*’ indicates significant differences between the type 2 DM group (white) and controls (grey) in GM volumes (One-Way ANOVA); regional GM volumes in left hemisphere were correlated with Multi-Scale GV for diabetics and/or controls, blue indicates positive correlation, red indicates negative correlation with each GVC, G' = gyrus, ‘#’ indicates we found similar relationship between Multi-Scale GV and GM volumes in the right hemisphere (<i>r²</i> = 0.26–074, <i>P</i><0.05). The bar graphs are presented as mean ± SEM.</p