Does Energy-Growth and Environment Quality Matter for Agriculture Sector in Pakistan or not? An Application of Cointegration Approach

The main objective of this paper is to examine the long-term effects of financial development, economic growth, energy consumption (electricity consumption in the agriculture sector), foreign direct investment (FDI), and population on the environmental quality in Pakistan during the period of 1980 to 2016. We use CO2 emissions from the agriculture sector as a proxy indicator for environmental quality. We employ various unit root tests (e.g., ADF, PP, ERS, KPSS) and structural break unit root tests (Z&A, CMR) to check the stationarity and structural break in the data series. Cointegration tests, i.e., Johansen, Engle-Granger, and ARDL cointegration approaches are used to ensure their robustness. Results showed that significant long-term cointegration exists among the variables. Findings also indicated that an increase in financial development and foreign direct investment (FDI) improves environmental quality, whereas the increase in economic growth and electricity consumption in the agriculture sector degrades environmental quality in Pakistan. Based on the findings, we suggest policymakers should provide a conducive environment for foreign investment. Moreover, it is also suggested that a reliance on fossil fuels be reduced and a transition to renewable energy sources be encouraged to decrease the environmental pollution in the country

The Effects of Leucine, Zinc, and Chromium Supplements on Inflammatory Events of the Respiratory System in Type 2 Diabetic Rats.

Diabetes mellitus is a major cause of serious micro- and macrovascular diseases that affect nearly every system in the body, including the respiratory system. Non-enzymatic protein glycation due to hyperglycaemic stress has fundamental implications due to the large capillary network and amount of connective tissue in the lung. The current study was designed to determine whether leucine, zinc, and chromium supplementations influence the function and histological structure of the respiratory tract in a rat model of type 2 diabetes. Seventy-seven rats were divided into eleven groups, consisting of 7 animals each. One group served as negative control and insulin and glibenclamide were used as positive control drugs. Thus, eight groups received the nutritional supplements alone or in combination with each other. Nutritional supplements and glibenclamide were added to the drinking water and neutral protamine Hagedorn insulin was subcutaneously injected during the 4 weeks of treatment period. The induction of type 2 diabetes in the rats caused an infiltration of mononuclear cells and edema in the submucosa of the trachea and lung, severe fibrosis around the vessels and airways, and perivascular and peribronchial infiltration of inflammatory cells and fibrin. In the diabetic group, the total inflammation score and Reid index significantly increased. Diabetes induction significantly reduced the total antioxidant status and elevated the lipid peroxidation products in the serum, lung lavage and lung tissue of the diabetic animals. Treatment with nutritional supplements significantly decreased the histopathological changes and inflammatory indices in the diabetic animals. Supplementation of diabetic rats with leucine, zinc, and chromium, alone and in combination, significantly increased the total antioxidant status and lipid peroxidation level in the diabetic animals. The nutritional supplements improved the enzymatic antioxidant activity of catalase, glutathione peroxidase, myeloperoxidase, and superoxide dismutase in the diabetic rats. The present results demonstrate beneficial effects and amelioration of inflammation in the respiratory system of type 2 diabetic rats by leucine, zinc, and chromium supplements, probably due to their hypoglycaemic and antioxidant properties. Using safe and effective nutritional supplements, such as leucine, chromium and zinc, to replace proven conventional medical treatments may help to control diabetes and/or its complications

Cell analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in the experimental groups.

<p>¹RBC = red blood cells; HPF = high power field; Lym = lymphocyte; Epith = epithelial; Macro = macrophage; Neut = neutrophil; # = number of cell</p><p>²CTR = control; T2D = type 2 diabetes; INS = NPH insulin; GLC = glibenclamide; Leu = leucine; Zn = zinc; Cr = chromium.</p><p>^a–cSignificant differences (<i>P</i><0.05) among treatments are indicated by different letters.</p><p>Data are least squares means and standard error of the mean.</p

Antioxidant enzymes activities in the lungs of the experimental groups.

<p>The lung catalase (A), glutathione peroxidase (B), myeloperoxidase (C) and superoxide dismutase (D) activities were measured in all of the experimental groups. Different superscript letters (a-f) indicate significant differences among groups (<i>P</i><0.05). CTR = control; T2D = type 2 diabetes; INS = NPH insulin; GLC = glibenclamide; Leu = leucine; Zn = zinc; Cr = chromium.</p

Protein leakage in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of the experimental groups.

<p>The total amounts of protein were measured in the BAL fluid in all of the experimental groups. Different superscript letters (a-d) indicate significant differences among groups (<i>P</i><0.05). CTR = control; T2D = type 2 diabetes; INS = NPH insulin; GLC = glibenclamide; Leu = leucine; Zn = zinc; Cr = chromium.</p

Haematological parameters of the experimental groups.

<p>¹PCV = packed cell volume; TP = total protein; FBG = fibrinogen; RBC = red blood cells; Hb = hemoglobin; WBC = white blood cells.</p><p>²CTR = control; T2D = type 2 diabetes; INS = NPH insulin; GLC = glibenclamide; Leu = leucine; Zn = zinc; Cr = chromium.</p><p>^a–eSignificant differences (<i>P</i><0.05) among treatments are indicated by different letters.</p><p>Data are least squares means and standard error of the mean.</p

Blood antioxidant enzyme activities in the experimental groups.

<p>Blood catalase (A), glutathione peroxidase (B), myeloperoxidase (C) and superoxide dismutase (D) activities was measured in all of the experimental groups. Different superscript letters (a-f) indicate significant differences among the groups (<i>P</i><0.05). CTR = control; T2D = type 2 diabetes; INS = NPH insulin; GLC = glibenclamide; Leu = leucine; Zn = zinc; Cr = chromium.</p

Blood insulin concentrations in the experimental groups.

<p>Different superscript letters (a-d) indicate significant differences among the groups (<i>P</i><0.05). CTR = control; T2D = type 2 diabetes; INS = NPH insulin; GLC = glibenclamide; Leu = leucine; Zn = zinc; Cr = chromium.</p

Histopathological findings in the tracheas of rats in all of the experimental groups.

<p>A. Control (CTR): normal architecture of trachea Bar: 125 micrometres; B. Diabetic group (T2D): sub-mucosal gland hyperplasia. Although most of the glands are serous glands (black arrows), one mucus secretory unit is observable (white arrow) Bar: 50 micrometres; C. Insulin-treated group (INS): the trachea is approximately normal. Bar: 125 micrometres; D. Glibenclamide-treated group (GLC): inflammatory cells are obvious in the lamina propria and submucosa (white arrows). Bar: 12.5 micrometres; E. Leucine-treated group (Leu): inflammatory mononuclear cells are present in the submucosa (white arrows). Hypertrophic and hyperplastic glands are present (black arrow) Bar: 50 micrometres; F. Zinc-treated group (Zn): severe inflammation in the lamina propria and submucosa. Bar: 12.5 micrometres; G. Chromium-treated group (Cr): edema (black arrows) and inflammation (white arrows) in the lamina propria and submucosa. Bar: 50 micrometres; H. Zinc and Cr-treated group (Zn-Cr): edema (black arrows) and slight inflammation (white arrows) in the lamina propria and submucosa. Bar: 12.5 micrometres; I. Leu plus Zn-treated group (Leu-Zn): edema (black arrows) and slight inflammation (white arrows) in the lamina propria and submucosa. Bar: 12.5 micrometres; J. Leu plus Cr-treated group (Leu-Cr): inflammation in the submucosa (arrows) Bar: 50 micrometres; K. Zinc plus Cr-treated group (Zn-Cr): the presence of different types of inflammatory cells in the lamina propria and submucosa (arrows) Bar: 12.5 micrometre; L. Leucine plus zinc plus chromium-treated group (Leu-Zn-Cr): slight edema in the submucosa (arrows) Bar: 50 micrometres.</p

Oxidative stress in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of the experimental groups.

<p>(A) TBARS (Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) used as an index of lipid peroxidation and (B) FRAP (Ferric reducing ability of plasma) as an indicator of a total antioxidant status were measured in all of the experimental groups. Different superscript letters (a-e) indicate significant differences among the groups (<i>P</i><0.05). CTR = control; T2D = type 2 diabetes; INS = NPH insulin; GLC = glibenclamide; Leu = leucine; Zn = zinc; Cr = chromium.</p