Do principal preparation and teacher qualifications influence different types of school growth trajectories in Illinois?: A growth mixture model analysis

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the independent effects of principal background, training and experience as well as teacher academic qualifications on school proficiency growth through time. Design/methodology/approach – The authors analyzed the entire population of all elementary and middle schools in the state of Illinois, n=3,154 schools, from 2000 to 2001 through 2005-2006 using growth mixture modeling. The authors examined growth at the school level in the percentage of students meeting or exceeding standards on the Illinois Standard Achievement Test, analyzing separate models for Chicago and non-Chicago schools. Findings – The results suggest that there are two statistically significantly different latent school proficiency trajectory subgroups through the six-year time period, one high and one low, for both Chicago and non-Chicago schools. In addition, the models suggest that teacher academic qualifications, principal training, principal experience as a principal and an assistant principal, and experience of the principal as a teacher previously in their schools are significantly related to school proficiency growth over time, dependent upon school context. Practical implications – Recent studies on the independent effects of principal experience, training and teacher academic qualifications have shown inconsistent results on school achievement growth. The authors demonstrate that principal training and background may have an effect on school-level proficiency score growth. Originality/value – This study is one of the first to examine statistically different proficiency growth trajectories using an entire state-wide data set over a long-term, six-year timeframe

Introduction to School and District Leadership in an Era of Accountability: Chapter 1

Our fourth book in the International Research on School Leadership series focuses on school leadership in an era of high-stakes accountability. Fueled by sweeping federal education accountability reforms, such as No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and Race to the Top (RttT) in the United States and Australia’s Performance Measurement and Reporting Task Force, school systems around the world are being forced to increase academic standards, participate in high-stakes testing, and raise evaluation standards for teachers and principals. These results-driven reforms are intended to hold educators “accountable for student learning and accountable to the public” (Anderson, 2005, p.2). While policymakers and the public debate the merits of student achievement accountability measures, P-12 educational leaders do not have the luxury to wait for clear guidance and resources to improve their schools and operating systems. Instead, successful leaders must balance the need to create learning communities, manage the organizational climate, and encourage community involvement with the consequences testing has on teacher morale and public scrutiny. The chapters in this volume clearly indicate that school leaders attending to these potentially competing forces affects their problem-solving strategies, their ability to facilitate change, and encourage community involvement. 123 In soliciting manuscripts for this volume, we encouraged authors to explore successful leadership being practiced by building and district level leaders as external pressures to improve student achievement have increased. Our goal was to create an edited book that examines successful school and district leadership during the accountability era from multiple perspectives. Our call for manuscripts asked potential authors to consider these important questions: - How do educational leaders successfully manage the politics of accountability? - To what degree are innovation and creativity affected as accountability increases? - What are effective ways of maintaining staff morale and community involvement as the pressure to raise student achievement rises?- Why do some schools thrive during times of increasing accountability? - How has accountability shaped what schools and districts do to build leadership capacity, professional learning communities, and continuous improvement? - During the accountability era, how have school leadership practices changed? Have these changes led to improved student achievement? - How have school leaders used elements of accountability (e.g., transparency, testing, data disaggregation) to inform their practice? This first chapter in the book volume provides a brief overview of the theme of the book and then an introduction for each of the eleven chapters, with links to the full book

Considering the Use of Data by School Leaders for Decision Making: An Introduction

Our fifth book in the International Research on School Leadership series focuses on the use of data in schools and districts as useful information for leadership and decision making. Schools are awash in data and information, from test scores, to grades, to discipline reports, and attendance as just a short list of student information sources (Bernhardt, 2004), while additional streams of data feed into schools and districts from teachers and parents as well as local, regional and national policy levels (Henig, 2012; Honig & Venkateswaran, 2012; Piety, 2013). To deal with the data, schools have implemented a variety of data practices, from data rooms, to data days, data walks, and data protocols (Mandinach & Gummer, 2013; Marsh, 2012). However, despite the flood of data, successful school leaders are leveraging an analysis of their school’s data as a means to bring about continuous improvement in an effort to improve instruction for all students (Boudett & Steele, 2007). Nevertheless, some drown, some swim, while others find success. Our goal in this book volume was to bring together a set of chapters by authors who examine successful data use as it relates to leadership and school improvement. In particular, the chapters in this volume consider important issues in this domain, including: - How do educational leaders use data to inform their practice? - What types of data and data analysis are most useful to successful school leaders? - To what extent are data driven and data informed practices helping school leaders positively change instructional practice? - In what ways does good data collection and analysis feed into successful continuous improvement and holistic systems thinking? - How have school leadership practices changed as more data and data analysis techniques have become available? - What are the major obstacles facing school leaders when using data for decision making and how do they overcome them

The Multiple Futures of the Field of Educational Leadership Research and Practice – An Introduction

As the sixth volume in the International Research on School Leadership series, the contributing authors in this volume consider the history, challenges, and opportunities of the field of research and practice in educational leadership and administration in schools and districts. Ten years after the work of Firestone and Riehl (2005) and their contributing authors, our aim with the present volume was to summarize and update the work of the field, and provide a space to consider the multiple futures of educational leadership in schools and districts, as both challenges and opportunities. The first decade of the twenty-first century brought significant critiques, challenges, and competition to the research and practice of training leaders and administrators of schools and districts around the world. Congruently, the field experienced significant growth and change, as multiple new sub-domains flourished and were founded. Thus, in this volume we were delighted to included excellent chapters from multiple authors that considered the duality of the challenges and opportunities of: • The work of the field of educational leadership and administration research to date. • The opportunities and challenges of new visions of leadership in traditional and non-traditional schools. • The evolving state of research evidence in educational leadership and the increasing sophistication of multiple methodologies, including qualitative research, quantitative modeling, the ability to test theory, and the increasing opportunities brought on by the intersection of data, research, and practice. • The preparation of educational leaders. • And the emerging trends in the professional development of school leaders. The authors of the nine chapters in the present book volume took on this challenge of confronting the duality of not only including the past as we look to the future, but also the duality of the critique of the field in the midst of exciting and significant progress in our knowledge and understanding of leadership in schools. In the first section of the book (Chapters 2, 3 and 4), the authors examine the interplay of educational leadership research and theory as it relates to reform in schools, especially as it relates to serving historically underserved populations globally. In section 2 (Chapters 5 and 6), the authors highlight the importance of methodological considerations in school leadership research as a means to understand theory and practice as well as providing interesting avenues that point to multiple exciting future possibilities through relying on current innovations noted within the chapters. Section 3, (Chapters 7 and 8) examine the research and practice of school leadership preparation, especially as it relates to university-district partnerships and non-traditional school settings. And in the final chapter, (Chapter 9), our capstone contributor provides a means to link the present volume with the past writings on these topics, while also providing a lens to view the exciting possibilities and promises of the multiple futures of the field of educational leadership research and practice

The Multiple Futures of the Field of Educational Leadership Research and Practice – An Introduction

As the sixth volume in the International Research on School Leadership series, the contributing authors in this volume consider the history, challenges, and opportunities of the field of research and practice in educational leadership and administration in schools and districts. Ten years after the work of Firestone and Riehl (2005) and their contributing authors, our aim with the present volume was to summarize and update the work of the field, and provide a space to consider the multiple futures of educational leadership in schools and districts, as both challenges and opportunities. The first decade of the twenty-first century brought significant critiques, challenges, and competition to the research and practice of training leaders and administrators of schools and districts around the world. Congruently, the field experienced significant growth and change, as multiple new sub-domains flourished and were founded. Thus, in this volume we were delighted to included excellent chapters from multiple authors that considered the duality of the challenges and opportunities of: • The work of the field of educational leadership and administration research to date. • The opportunities and challenges of new visions of leadership in traditional and non-traditional schools. • The evolving state of research evidence in educational leadership and the increasing sophistication of multiple methodologies, including qualitative research, quantitative modeling, the ability to test theory, and the increasing opportunities brought on by the intersection of data, research, and practice. • The preparation of educational leaders. • And the emerging trends in the professional development of school leaders. The authors of the nine chapters in the present book volume took on this challenge of confronting the duality of not only including the past as we look to the future, but also the duality of the critique of the field in the midst of exciting and significant progress in our knowledge and understanding of leadership in schools. In the first section of the book (Chapters 2, 3 and 4), the authors examine the interplay of educational leadership research and theory as it relates to reform in schools, especially as it relates to serving historically underserved populations globally. In section 2 (Chapters 5 and 6), the authors highlight the importance of methodological considerations in school leadership research as a means to understand theory and practice as well as providing interesting avenues that point to multiple exciting future possibilities through relying on current innovations noted within the chapters. Section 3, (Chapters 7 and 8) examine the research and practice of school leadership preparation, especially as it relates to university-district partnerships and non-traditional school settings. And in the final chapter, (Chapter 9), our capstone contributor provides a means to link the present volume with the past writings on these topics, while also providing a lens to view the exciting possibilities and promises of the multiple futures of the field of educational leadership research and practice

Pilot Study of Gaze Scanning and Intersection Detection Failures by Drivers with Hemianopia

In a prior study, intersection detection failures of individuals with hemianopia were strongly associated with inadequate head scanning; however, eye position was not tracked. In this pilot study, we tracked eye and head movements, and examined the relationship between gaze scanning and detection of pedestrians at intersections in a driving simulator. Gaze scan deficits, in particular not scanning sufficiently far into the blind hemifield, were the main reason for detection failures at the extreme edge of the clear-sight triangle in the blind hemifield. In addition, the gaze data revealed detection failures due to looked-but-failed-to-see events. The results suggest that HH drivers may be at increased risk for collisions at intersections

Visual Attention Measures Predict Pedestrian Detection in Central Field Loss: A Pilot Study

Purpose The ability of visually impaired people to deploy attention effectively to maximize use of their residual vision in dynamic situations is fundamental to safe mobility. We conducted a pilot study to evaluate whether tests of dynamic attention (multiple object tracking; MOT) and static attention (Useful Field of View; UFOV) were predictive of the ability of people with central field loss (CFL) to detect pedestrian hazards in simulated driving. Methods: 11 people with bilateral CFL (visual acuity 20/30-20/200) and 11 age-similar normally-sighted drivers participated. Dynamic and static attention were evaluated with brief, computer-based MOT and UFOV tasks, respectively. Dependent variables were the log speed threshold for 60% correct identification of targets (MOT) and the increase in the presentation duration for 75% correct identification of a central target when a concurrent peripheral task was added (UFOV divided and selective attention subtests). Participants drove in a simulator and pressed the horn whenever they detected pedestrians that walked or ran toward the road. The dependent variable was the proportion of timely reactions (could have stopped in time to avoid a collision). Results: UFOV and MOT performance of CFL participants was poorer than that of controls, and the proportion of timely reactions was also lower (worse) (84% and 97%, respectively; p = 0.001). For CFL participants, higher proportions of timely reactions correlated significantly with higher (better) MOT speed thresholds (r = 0.73, p = 0.01), with better performance on the UFOV divided and selective attention subtests (r = −0.66 and −0.62, respectively, p<0.04), with better contrast sensitivity scores (r = 0.54, p = 0.08) and smaller scotomas (r = −0.60, p = 0.05). Conclusions: Our results suggest that brief laboratory-based tests of visual attention may provide useful measures of functional visual ability of individuals with CFL relevant to more complex mobility tasks

Simulator-Based Driving with Hemianopia: Detection Performance and Compensatory Behaviors on Approach to Intersections

OBJECTIVES In 22 states people with homonymous hemianopia (complete loss of the visual field on the sameside in both eyes) are explicitly prohibited from driving, as they do not meet the minimum visualfield requirements for driver licensing. However, there is little scientific evidence derived eitherfrom on-road or driving simulator studies about the safety of driving with hemianopia. If the eyeand head were kept stationary, people with hemianopia would not detect anything on the side ofthe field loss. In the real world, however, they may be able to compensate for the loss byexploring the affected (blind) side using head- and eye-scanning. It has been reported that inHolland (where driving with hemianopia is permitted), driving examiners consider increasedhead-scanning (especially on approach to intersections) to be an effective compensation forperipheral visual field defects (Coeckelbergh et al., 2002). Whether increased head-scanningwhile driving results in better detection performance has never been quantitatively investigated.We conducted a simulator-based evaluation of driving with hemianopia to investigate detectionperformance and head movement behaviors on approach to intersections.METHODSTo date, eight people with complete homonymous hemianopia (5 left and 3 right), and withoutvisual neglect or significant cognitive decline have completed the study. All had current or recentdriving experience (within the last 6 years). They completed two simulator sessions, one weekapart, driving in a high-fidelity simulator. Each session consisted of a familiarization period of30-60 minutes followed by 6 test drives (each about 12 minutes in duration). The primarysimulator task was to detect and respond (by a horn press) to the appearance of pedestrian targetsin a variety of traffic situations while driving according to the normal rules of the road. Targetsappeared randomly in locations relevant to real-world driving. There were two types of targets:“roadway” targets, which appeared either on the left or right of the road at small (~ 4°) or large(~14°) eccentricities from the presumed line of sight, and “intersection” targets, which wereplaced near or at intersections to test whether drivers were scanning effectively whenapproaching an intersection. Primary outcome measures were the percentage of targets detectedand reaction times when detected. Head movements were recorded with an inexpensive, lightweight,head-mounted optical head tracking system. Preliminary analyses of head movementbehaviors were conducted for intersections with stop or yield signs. Based on visual inspectionof the head movement plots, the number and direction of head movements were recorded and head movement scanning was graded on a 4-point scale (from 1 inadequate to 4 excellent). Inaddition, we are developing methods to automatically quantify driving skills (e.g., steering, laneposition) from the simulator data output.RESULTSDetection rates for roadway pedestrian targets were lower and reaction times longer on the blindside than the seeing side (p ≤ 0.05). Blind side: median detection rate 47% (IQR 22 to 63%),median reaction time 1.65s (IQR 1.05 to 1.84s); seeing side: median detection rate 93% (IQR89% to 99%), median reaction time 0.93s, (IQR 0.88 to 1.25s). Detection rates on the blind sidewere lower at the larger eccentricity (median 23%) than the smaller eccentricity (median 66%; p= 0.01). Drivers with right hemianopia (RH) detected 83% of intersection pedestrian targets onthe extreme left of an intersection but none on the extreme right, whereas drivers with lefthemianopia (LH) detected 33% on the extreme left and 80% on the extreme right. Better headscanningscores were associated with better detection rates for intersection targets at extremepositions on the blind side (Spearman r = 0.79, p = 0.02). Two of the drivers with LH showedinadequate scanning (grade 1), failing to scan to the left at more than 60% of intersections. Therest of the drivers with LH and all three with RH demonstrated better head-scanning (grades 2-4)with some compensatory head movement behaviors. At T-intersections with no incoming roadon one side, they scanned more frequently in the direction of the “absent” road when it was onthe blind side (RH 40% and LH 80%) than when it was on the seeing side (RH and LH \u3c10%).When there were incoming roads on both sides, the first head scan was normally to the left forLH, but it was to the right about 30% of the time for drivers with RH.CONCLUSIONSThese results provide evidence of widely varying levels of compensation and detection abilitiesamongst drivers with hemianopia, suggesting that fitness to drive should be evaluated on anindividual basis. The preliminary finding of a relationship between head-scanning score andintersection detection performance will be further evaluated using automated methods toquantify head movement behaviors and a larger sample of drivers with hemianopia. Furthermore,we will compare head movement behaviors of drivers with hemianopia to matched controldrivers without visual field loss.REFERENCESCoeckelbergh, T.R., Brouwer, W.H., Cornelissen, F.W., van Wolffelaar, P., Kooijman, A.C.(2002). The effect of visual field defects on driving performance: a driving simulator study. ArchOphthalmol, 120, 1509-1516

Video Test to Evaluate Detection Performance of Drivers with Hemianopia: Preliminary Results

The ability of individuals with hemianopia to compensate for their vision impairment by eye/head scanning to detect hazards in their non-seeing (blind) hemifield varies widely in both simulator and on-road tests. Conventional visual fields tests do not reflect this variability, while simulator and on-road tests are time-consuming and expensive. We therefore developed a simple, 15-minute video-based pedestrian detection test suitable for implementation on a desktop computer and monitor. The test was found to be sensitive to detection deficits in both hemianopia and quadranopia, and predictive of detection performance in a driving simulator. Our preliminary findings suggest that the test provides a simple method of measuring detection ability relevant to driving which may be useful both as a screening test and as an evaluation tool for rehabilitation devices and training

Mobile gaze tracking system for outdoor walking behavioral studies

Most gaze tracking techniques estimate gaze points on screens, on scene images, or in confined spaces. Tracking of gaze in open-world coordinates, especially in walking situations, has rarely been addressed. We use a headmounted eye tracker combined with two inertial measurement units (IMU) to track gaze orientation relative to the heading direction in outdoor walking. Head movements relative to the body are measured by the difference in output between the IMUs on the head and body trunk. The use of the IMU pair reduces the impact of environmental interference on each sensor. The system was tested in busy urban areas and allowed drift compensation for long (up to 18 min) gaze recording. Comparison with ground truth revealed an average error of 3.38 while walking straight segments. The range of gaze scanning in walking is frequently larger than the estimation error by about one order of magnitude. Our proposed method was also tested with real cases of natural walking and it was found to be suitable for the evaluation of gaze behaviors in outdoor environments