Relationship Marketing Practices on Performance of Commercial Banks in Kenya

Banking as a service industry has recently experienced a tremendous growth through profits, ongoing deposits and revenues. This trend has had a significant influence on competition in the industry. Even so, Bank have successfully tried to brave the stiff competition even to stand out as one of the most successful Kenyan businesses. At the wake of this competition, relationship marketing practices have helped organizations establish durable and unending associations with their customers. This study was conducted to analyze the extent to which relationship marketing practices employed by Banks influence performance in the growing banking industry. A descriptive cross sectional research design was adopted. The target population comprised of 88 employees who are based at the bank headquarters in the following departments; customer service, corporate affairs, finance department, business development, operations and credit and risk department. The study employed a structured questionnaire to collect data. The research instrument was pilot tested with the aim of assessing both its reliability and validity. The collected data was analyzed with the aid of the SPSS software. The findings revealed that 88% of the respondents ascribed to the view that communication, been an aspect of marketing translated to a relative influence on the outcome of the bank’s performance. This means that performance of the bank is positively correlated to the marketing communication mix strategies employed by the bank. Keywords: Commercial banks, Communication, Service Differentiation, Service Quality

Effect of Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccination without a booster dose on invasive H influenzae type b disease, nasopharyngeal carriage, and population immunity in Kilifi, Kenya: a 15-year regional surveillance study

Background Haemophilus infl uenzae type b (Hib) conjugate vaccine, delivered as a three-dose series without a booster, was introduced into the childhood vaccination programme in Kenya in 2001. The duration of protection and need for a booster dose are unknown. We aimed to assess vaccine eff ectiveness, the impact of the vaccine on nasopharyngeal carriage, and population immunity after introduction of conjugate Hib vaccine in infancy without a booster dose in Kenya. Methods This study took place in the Kilifi Health and Demographic Surveillance System (KHDSS), an area of Kenya that has been monitored for vital events and migration every 4 months since 2000. We analysed sterile site cultures for H infl uenzae type b from children (aged ≤12 years) admitted to the Kilifi County Hospital (KCH) from Jan 1, 2000, through to Dec 31, 2014. We determined the prevalence of nasopharyngeal carriage by undertaking cross-sectional surveys in random samples of KHDSS residents (of all ages) once every year from 2009 to 2012, and measured Hib antibody concentrations in fi ve cross-sectional samples of children (aged ≤12 years) within the KHDSS (in 1998, 2000, 2004–05, 2007, and 2009). We calculated incidence rate ratios between the prevaccine era (2000–01) and the routineuse era (2004–14) and defi ned vaccine eff ectiveness as 1 minus the incidence rate ratio, expressed as a percentage. Findings 40 482 children younger than 13 years resident in KHDSS were admitted to KCH between 2000 and 2014, 38 206 (94%) of whom had their blood cultured. The incidence of invasive H infl uenzae type b disease in children younger than 5 years declined from 62·6 (95% CI 46·0–83·3) per 100 000 in 2000–01 to 4·5 (2·5–7·5) per 100 000 in 2004–14, giving a vaccine eff ectiveness of 93% (95% CI 87–96). In the fi nal 5 years of observation (2010–14), only one case of invasive H infl uenzae type b disease was detected in a child younger than 5 years. Nasopharyngeal H infl uenzae type b carriage was detected in one (0·2%) of 623 children younger than 5 years between 2009 and 2012. In the 2009 serosurvey, 92 (79%; 95% CI 70–86) of 117 children aged 4–35 months had long-term protective antibody concentrations. Interpretation In this region of Kenya, use of a three-dose primary series of Hib vaccine without a booster dose has resulted in a signifi cant and sustained reduction in invasive H infl uenzae type b disease. The prevalence of nasopharyngeal carriage is low and the profi le of Hib antibodies suggests that protection wanes only after the age at greatest risk of disease. Although continued surveillance is important to determine whether eff ective control persists, these fi ndings suggest that a booster dose is not currently required in Kenya

Different plant viruses induce changes in feeding behavior of specialist and generalist aphids on common bean that are likely to enhance virus transmission

Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV), bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV), and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) cause serious epidemics in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), a vital food security crop in many low-to-medium income countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. Aphids transmit these viruses “non-persistently,” i.e., virions attach loosely to the insects' stylets. Viruses may manipulate aphid-host interactions to enhance transmission. We used direct observation and electrical penetration graph measurements to see if the three viruses induced similar or distinct changes in feeding behaviors of two aphid species, Aphis fabae and Myzus persicae. Both aphids vector BCMV, BCMNV, and CMV but A. fabae is a legume specialist (the dominant species in bean fields) while M. persicae is a generalist that feeds on and transmits viruses to diverse plant hosts. Aphids of both species commenced probing epidermal cells (behavior optimal for virus acquisition and inoculation) sooner on virus-infected plants than on mock-inoculated plants. Infection with CMV was especially disruptive of phloem feeding by the bean specialist aphid A. fabae. A. fabae also experienced mechanical stylet difficulty when feeding on virus-infected plants, and this was also exacerbated for M. persicae. Overall, feeding on virus-infected host plants by specialist and generalist aphids was affected in different ways but all three viruses induced similar effects on each aphid type. Specifically, non-specialist (M. persicae) aphids encountered increased stylet difficulties on plants infected with BCMV, BCMNV, or CMV, whereas specialist aphids (A. fabae) showed decreased phloem ingestion on infected plants. Probing and stylet pathway activity (which facilitate virus transmission) were not decreased by any of the viruses for either of the aphid species, except in the case of A. fabae on CMV-infected bean, where these activities were increased. Overall, these virus-induced changes in host-aphid interactions are likely to enhance non-persistent virus transmission, and data from this work will be useful in epidemiological modeling of non-persistent vectoring of viruses by aphids

Cohort profile : the Kilifi vaccine monitoring study

The Kilifi Vaccine Monitoring Study (KiVMS) is a long-term continuous cohort study set up to investigate effectiveness, impact, coverage, safety and indirect vaccine effects by recruiting birth cohorts and, where applicable, cohorts of older and adults. It is based in the area covered by the Kilifi Health and Demographic Surveillance System, Kilifi, Kenya, and currently has records of 33 962 children in the birth cohort database. A major strength of KiVMS is its unique integration of a vaccine registry, a morbidity surveillance system and the largest health and demographic surveillance system (HDSS) in Africa

Three Aphid-Transmitted Viruses Encourage Vector Migration From Infected Common Bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris ) Plants Through a Combination of Volatile and Surface Cues

Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV), bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV), and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) are important pathogens of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), a crop vital for food security in sub-Saharan Africa. These viruses are vectored by aphids non-persistently, with virions bound loosely to stylet receptors. These viruses also manipulate aphid-mediated transmission by altering host properties. Virus-induced effects on host-aphid interactions were investigated using choice test (migration) assays, olfactometry, and analysis of insect-perceivable volatile organic compounds (VOCs) using gas chromatography (GC)-coupled mass spectrometry, and GC-coupled electroantennography. When allowed to choose freely between infected and uninfected plants, aphids of the legume specialist species Aphis fabae, and of the generalist species Myzus persicae, were repelled by plants infected with BCMV, BCMNV, or CMV. However, in olfactometer experiments with A. fabae, only the VOCs emitted by BCMNV-infected plants repelled aphids. Although BCMV, BCMNV, and CMV each induced distinctive changes in emission of aphid-perceivable volatiles, all three suppressed emission of an attractant sesquiterpene, α-copaene, suggesting these three different viruses promote migration of virus-bearing aphids in a similar fashion

Three aphid-transmitted viruses encourage vector migration from infected common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) plants through a combination of volatile and surface cues

Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV), bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV), and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) are important pathogens of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), a crop vital for food security in sub-Saharan Africa. These viruses are vectored by aphids non-persistently, with virions bound loosely to stylet receptors. These viruses also manipulate aphid-mediated transmission by altering host properties. Virus-induced effects on host-aphid interactions were investigated using choice test (migration) assays, olfactometry, and analysis of insect-perceivable volatile organic compounds (VOCs) using gas chromatography (GC)-coupled mass spectrometry, and GC-coupled electroantennography. When allowed to choose freely between infected and uninfected plants, aphids of the legume specialist species Aphis fabae, and of the generalist species Myzus persicae, were repelled by plants infected with BCMV, BCMNV, or CMV. However, in olfactometer experiments with A. fabae, only the VOCs emitted by BCMNV-infected plants repelled aphids. Although BCMV, BCMNV, and CMV each induced distinctive changes in emission of aphid-perceivable volatiles, all three suppressed emission of an attractant sesquiterpene, α-copaene, suggesting these three different viruses promote migration of virus-bearing aphids in a similar fashion

Three Aphid-Transmitted Viruses Encourage Vector Migration From Infected Common Bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris ) Plants Through a Combination of Volatile and Surface Cues

Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV), bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV), and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) are important pathogens of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), a crop vital for food security in sub-Saharan Africa. These viruses are vectored by aphids non-persistently, with virions bound loosely to stylet receptors. These viruses also manipulate aphid-mediated transmission by altering host properties. Virus-induced effects on host-aphid interactions were investigated using choice test (migration) assays, olfactometry, and analysis of insect-perceivable volatile organic compounds (VOCs) using gas chromatography (GC)-coupled mass spectrometry, and GC-coupled electroantennography. When allowed to choose freely between infected and uninfected plants, aphids of the legume specialist species Aphis fabae, and of the generalist species Myzus persicae, were repelled by plants infected with BCMV, BCMNV, or CMV. However, in olfactometer experiments with A. fabae, only the VOCs emitted by BCMNV-infected plants repelled aphids. Although BCMV, BCMNV, and CMV each induced distinctive changes in emission of aphid-perceivable volatiles, all three suppressed emission of an attractant sesquiterpene, α-copaene, suggesting these three different viruses promote migration of virus-bearing aphids in a similar fashion

Presence of three pesticides in rural drinking water sources in Kenya

A cross-sectional study on the use of three pesticides and their presence in drinking water sources was conducted in Githunguri/Kiaria community between January 1994-March 1995. The main objective of the study was to determine the extent to which some of the pesticides used by the Githunguri/Kiaria agricultural community were polluting their drinking water sources. Due to monetary and physical limitations, only DDT, its isomers and metabolites, carbofuran and carbaryl pesticides were identified and used as surrogates of pollution for the other pesticides. The study area was divided into high and low lying geographic surface areas. Thirty-four and 38 water sampling sites were randomly selected respectively. During wet and dry seasons, a total of 144 water samples were collected and analyzed at the Kenya Bureau of Standards Laboratory in Nairobi. Gas chromatography was used to analyze samples for possible presence of DDT, its isomers and metabolites, while high pressure liquid chromatography was used to analyze samples for carbofuran and carbaryl pesticides. Six sites testing positively for DDT, its isomers and metabolites represented 19.4% of the total sampled sites, with a mean concentration of 0.00310 ppb in the dry season and 0.0130 ppb in the wet season. All the six sites testing positively for the same pesticide exceeded the European maximum contaminant limit (MCL) in the wet season, and only one site exceeded the European MCL in the dry season. Those sites testing positively for carbofuran and carbaryl represented 5.6% of the total sampled sites. The mean concentration for the carbofuran at the sites was 2.500 ppb and 1.590 ppb in the dry and wet seasons respectively. Similarly, the mean concentration for carbaryl at the sites was 0.281 ppb in the dry season and 0.326 ppb in the wet season. One site testing positively for carbofuran exceeded the European MCL and WHO set limit in the wet season, while one site testing positively for the same pesticide exceeded the USA, Canada, European and WHO MCLs in the dry season. Similarly, one site which tested positively for carbaryl pesticide exceeded the European MCL in both seasons. Out of the 2,587 community members in the study area, 333 (13%) were exposed through their drinking water sources to the three pesticides investigated by this study. As a public health measure, integrated pest management approaches (IPM), protection of the wells and education of the community is necessary to minimize the pollution of the environment and safeguard the drinking water sources from pollution by the pesticides

Different Plant Viruses Induce Changes in Feeding Behavior of Specialist and Generalist Aphids on Common Bean That Are Likely to Enhance Virus Transmission.

Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV), bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV), and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) cause serious epidemics in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), a vital food security crop in many low-to-medium income countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. Aphids transmit these viruses "non-persistently," i.e., virions attach loosely to the insects' stylets. Viruses may manipulate aphid-host interactions to enhance transmission. We used direct observation and electrical penetration graph measurements to see if the three viruses induced similar or distinct changes in feeding behaviors of two aphid species, Aphis fabae and Myzus persicae. Both aphids vector BCMV, BCMNV, and CMV but A. fabae is a legume specialist (the dominant species in bean fields) while M. persicae is a generalist that feeds on and transmits viruses to diverse plant hosts. Aphids of both species commenced probing epidermal cells (behavior optimal for virus acquisition and inoculation) sooner on virus-infected plants than on mock-inoculated plants. Infection with CMV was especially disruptive of phloem feeding by the bean specialist aphid A. fabae. A. fabae also experienced mechanical stylet difficulty when feeding on virus-infected plants, and this was also exacerbated for M. persicae. Overall, feeding on virus-infected host plants by specialist and generalist aphids was affected in different ways but all three viruses induced similar effects on each aphid type. Specifically, non-specialist (M. persicae) aphids encountered increased stylet difficulties on plants infected with BCMV, BCMNV, or CMV, whereas specialist aphids (A. fabae) showed decreased phloem ingestion on infected plants. Probing and stylet pathway activity (which facilitate virus transmission) were not decreased by any of the viruses for either of the aphid species, except in the case of A. fabae on CMV-infected bean, where these activities were increased. Overall, these virus-induced changes in host-aphid interactions are likely to enhance non-persistent virus transmission, and data from this work will be useful in epidemiological modeling of non-persistent vectoring of viruses by aphids

Different Plant Viruses Induce Changes in Feeding Behavior of Specialist and Generalist Aphids on Common Bean That Are Likely to Enhance Virus Transmission

Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV), bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV), and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) cause serious epidemics in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), a vital food security crop in many low-to-medium income countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. Aphids transmit these viruses “non-persistently,” i.e., virions attach loosely to the insects' stylets. Viruses may manipulate aphid-host interactions to enhance transmission. We used direct observation and electrical penetration graph measurements to see if the three viruses induced similar or distinct changes in feeding behaviors of two aphid species, Aphis fabae and Myzus persicae. Both aphids vector BCMV, BCMNV, and CMV but A. fabae is a legume specialist (the dominant species in bean fields) while M. persicae is a generalist that feeds on and transmits viruses to diverse plant hosts. Aphids of both species commenced probing epidermal cells (behavior optimal for virus acquisition and inoculation) sooner on virus-infected plants than on mock-inoculated plants. Infection with CMV was especially disruptive of phloem feeding by the bean specialist aphid A. fabae. A. fabae also experienced mechanical stylet difficulty when feeding on virus-infected plants, and this was also exacerbated for M. persicae. Overall, feeding on virus-infected host plants by specialist and generalist aphids was affected in different ways but all three viruses induced similar effects on each aphid type. Specifically, non-specialist (M. persicae) aphids encountered increased stylet difficulties on plants infected with BCMV, BCMNV, or CMV, whereas specialist aphids (A. fabae) showed decreased phloem ingestion on infected plants. Probing and stylet pathway activity (which facilitate virus transmission) were not decreased by any of the viruses for either of the aphid species, except in the case of A. fabae on CMV-infected bean, where these activities were increased. Overall, these virus-induced changes in host-aphid interactions are likely to enhance non-persistent virus transmission, and data from this work will be useful in epidemiological modeling of non-persistent vectoring of viruses by aphids