The Viability of Economic Reform Programs Supported by the International Financial Institutions

In seeking to make programs of economic reform supported by the IFIs more successful it is important to ensure that they are viable. Will governments be persuaded to participate? Will they complete the programs they negotiate? And will the IFIs be prepared to provide the resources? This paper formally analyses the factors influencing viability. It examines the constraints on participation and the need for incentive compatibility. The analysis identifies the threats to viability and the direction that reform should take. It places the effectiveness of programs firmly within a political economy framework and extends recent theories of program implementation by examining participation from the viewpoint of both the governments that demand assistance and the IFIs that supply it.

Estimating oil concentration and flow rate with calibrated vessel-mounted acoustic echo sounders

As part of a larger program aimed at evaluating acoustic techniques for mapping the distribution of subsurface oil and gas associated with the Deepwater Horizon-Macondo oil spill, observations were made on June 24 and 25, 2010 using vessel-mounted calibrated single-beam echo sounders on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ship Thomas Jefferson. Coincident with visual observations of oil at the sea surface, the 200-kHz echo sounder showed anomalously high-volume scattering strength in the upper 200 m on the western side of the wellhead, more than 100 times higher than the surrounding waters at 1,800-m distance from the wellhead, and weakening with increasing distance out to 5,000 m. Similar high-volume scattering anomalies were not observed at 12 or 38 kHz, although observations of anomalously low-volume scattering strength were made in the deep scattering layer at these frequencies at approximately the same locations. Together with observations of ocean currents, the acoustic observations are consistent with a rising plume of small (\u3c 1-mm radius) oil droplets. Using simplistic but reasonable assumptions about the properties of the oil droplets, an estimate of the flow rate was made that is remarkably consistent with those made at the wellhead by other means. The uncertainty in this acoustically derived estimate is high due to lack of knowledge of the size distribution and rise speed of the oil droplets. If properly constrained, these types of acoustic measurements can be used to rapidly estimate the flow rate of oil reaching the surface over large temporal and spatial scales

Observation of Quantum Motion of a Nanomechanical Resonator

In this Letter we use resolved sideband laser cooling to cool a mesoscopic mechanical resonator to near its quantum ground state (phonon occupancy 2.6±0.2), and observe the motional sidebands generated on a second probe laser. Asymmetry in the sideband amplitudes provides a direct measure of the displacement noise power associated with quantum zero-point fluctuations of the nanomechanical resonator, and allows for an intrinsic calibration of the phonon occupation number

Assessment of soil erosion vulnerability in the heavily populated and ecologically fragile communities in Motozintla de Mendoza, Chiapas, Mexico

Variability in physical rates and local knowledge of soil erosion was assessed across six rural communities in the Sierra Madre del Sur, Chiapas, Mexico. The average erosion rate estimated using the RUSLE model is 274 t ha-1 yr-1, with the estimated erosion rates ranging from 28 to 717 t ha-1 yr-1. These very high erosion rates are associated with high rainfall erosivity (17 000 MJ mm ha-1 h-1 yr-1) and steep slopes (mean slope Combining double low line 67 %). Many of the highest soil erosion rates are found in communities that are dominated by forestland, but where most of the tree cover has been removed. Conversely, lower erosion rates are often found where corn is cultivated for most of the year. According to the results of the soil erosion KAP (knowledge, attitude and practices) survey, awareness of the concept of soil erosion was reasonably high in all of the communities, but awareness of the causes of erosion was considerably lower. More than half of respondents believed that reforestation is a viable option for reducing soil erosion, but only a third of respondents were currently implementing reforestation practices. Another third of the respondents indicated that they were not following any soil conservation practices. Respondents indicated that adoption of government reforestation efforts have been hindered by the need to clear their land to sell forest products or cultivate corn. Respondents also mentioned the difficulties involved with obtaining favorable tree stocks for reforestation. The KAP results were used to assess the overall level of motivation to solve soil erosion problems by compiling negative responses. The relationship between the magnitude of the soil erosion problem and the capacity to reduce soil erosion is inconsistent across the communities. One community, Barrio Vicente Guerrero, had the highest average negative response rate and the second highest soil erosion rate, indicating that this community is particularly vulnerable

Predictions of household water affordability under conditions of climate change, demographic growth, and fresh groundwater depletion in a southwest US city indicate increasing burdens on the poor

Reduced river flows and groundwater depletion as a result of climate change and population growth have increased the effort and difficulty accessing and processing water. In turn, residential water costs from municipal utilities are predicted to rise to unaffordable rates for poor residential water customers. Building on a regional conjunctive use model with future climate scenarios and 50-year future water supply plans, our study communicates the effects of climate change on poor people in El Paso, Texas, as water becomes more difficult and expensive to obtain in future years. Four scenarios for future water supply and future water costs were delineated based on expected impacts of climate change and groundwater depletion. Residential water use was calculated by census tract in El Paso, using basic needs indoor water use and evaporative cooling use as determinants of household water consumption. Based on household size and income data from the US Census, fraction of household income spent on water was determined. Results reveal that in the future, basic water supply will be a significant burden for 40% of all households in El Paso. Impacts are geographically concentrated in poor census tracts. Our study revealed that negative impacts from water resource depletion and increasing populations in El Paso will lead to costly and difficult water for El Paso water users. We provide an example of how to connect future resource scenarios, including those affected by climate change, to challenges of affordability for vulnerable consumers

Development of a Three-Dimensional Groundwater Flow Model

A three-dimensional model for the simulation of transient groundwater flow is developed. The model is called REGFED for REGional flow using Finite Elements and Difference methods. A review of groundwater flow and contaminant transport concepts and theory reveals that three-dimensional representation of groundwater systems is essential for realistic simulation of flow and transport. From an analysis of currently available groundwater flow models and algorithms, it is apparent that a mixed numerical method consisting of finite-elements and finite differences is a suitable method for solving the groundwater flow equation in three dimensions. An algorithm known as ALALS (Alternate sublayer And Line Sweep) is selected for the basic model algorithm. Finite elements are applied to areal components, and flnite differences are applied to vertical components of flow. The model accomodates both conflned and unconfined groundwater flow problems and is also capable of handling the draining and refilling of individual elements or entire layers. Because of the model's efficient algorithm, it can accomodate thousands of nodal unknowns with minimal computer storage and CPU time. Quasilinear unconfined groundwater flow problems are solved using a Picard iteration scheme. Entire confined layers are skipped in the iteration scheme in order to decrease the CPU time required to solve the problem. The model is validated under a wide assortment of conditions including confined flow, confined flow with partially screened wells, unconfined flow, combined confined/unconfined flow, and flow with drained and refilled layers. A heuristic error analysis shows that model results compare well with validation results. Mass-balance errors for various groundwater flow problems are minimal for most cases. The convergence speed and stability of the iteration scheme is evaluated for solution of unconfined groundwater flow problems. A benchmark comparison using sample groundwater flow problems was performed with the REGFED model and with the USGS McDonald-Harbaugh model. Example applications further demonstrate the flexibility of the model. A three-dimensional model for the simulation of transient groundwater flow is developed. The model is called REGFED for REGional flow using Finite Elements and Difference methods. A review of groundwater flow and contaminant transport concepts and theory reveals that three-dimensional representation of groundwater systems is essential for realistic simulation of flow and transport. From an analysis of currently available groundwater flow models and algorithms, it is apparent that a mixed numerical method consisting of finite-elements and finite differences is a suitable method for solving the groundwater flow equation in three dimensions. An algorithm known as ALALS (Alternate sublayer And Line Sweep) is selected for the basic model algorithm. Finite elements are applied to areal components, and flnite differences are applied to vertical components of flow. The model accomodates both conflned and unconfined groundwater flow problems and is also capable of handling the draining and refilling of individual elements or entire layers. Because of the model's efficient algorithm, it can accomodate thousands of nodal unknowns with minimal computer storage and CPU time. Quasilinear unconfined groundwater flow problems are solved using a Picard iteration scheme. Entire confined layers are skipped in the iteration scheme in order to decrease the CPU time required to solve the problem. The model is validated under a wide assortment of conditions including confined flow, confined flow with partially screened wells, unconfined flow, combined confined/unconfined flow, and flow with drained and refilled layers. A heuristic error analysis shows that model results compare well with validation results. Mass-balance errors for various groundwater flow problems are minimal for most cases. The convergence speed and stability of the iteration scheme is evaluated for solution of unconfined groundwater flow problems. A benchmark comparison using sample groundwater flow problems was performed with the REGFED model and with the USGS McDonald-Harbaugh model. Example applications further demonstrate the flexibility of the model.Master of Science in Environmental Engineerin

Longitudinal teacher education and workforce study (LTEWS) final report

The Longitudinal Teacher Education Workforce Study (LTEWS) investigated the career progression of graduate teachers from teacher education into teaching employment in all states and territories across Australia in 2012 and the first half of 2013, and tracked their perceptions, over time, of the relevance and effectiveness of their teacher education programs. Specifically, it investigated: The career progression of the 2011 teacher education graduates from teacher education into, and possible exit from, teaching employment, including their utilisation into teaching, their retention and attrition in teaching in their early years, and their geographic and schools sector mobility; and, The views of teacher education graduates over time on the relevance and effectiveness of their teacher education for their teaching employment, including the relationship between their views of their teacher education and their early career teaching career. &nbsp

Hydrologic impacts and trade-offs associated with developing oil palm for bioenergy in Tabasco, Mexico

Study region: Oil palm cultivation has rapidly expanded worldwide due to demands for food oils and the potential for liquid fuel production. However, there is a scarcity of research on the hydrologic impacts of oil palm plantations at a watershed scale, especially in Latin America. We focus on a watershed typical of intensive palm oil production in Tabasco, Mexico. Study focus: A Soil and Water Assessment Tool model was calibrated to simulate long-term streamflow in the study watershed. The plant growth module was calibrated for leaf area index (LAI) and fruit yield simulations. Oil palm development scenarios were simulated to investigate the impacts of planting density and converted land cover types. New hydrological insights for the region: Oil palm evapotranspiration rates were 51 % higher on average than the converted land covers. The higher water use reduced mean annual streamflow by only 9% at the watershed scale, due to high precipitation in the upper watershed. In contrast, a 15 % decline in annual water yield was simulated in the converted areas of the watershed. Corresponding streamflow reductions in low-flow months were on average 34 %. A planting density of 150 palm/ha was the most efficient for water use and fruit production, giving a green water footprint for producing biodiesel of 87 m3/GJ energy, similar to oil palm cultivation elsewhere in the world

Estudo cinético da biodegradação dos compostos BTX monocomponente e multicomponente em um reator de leito fixo com biomassa imobilizada

Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Centro Tecnológico, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Química, Florianópolis, 2016Os hidrocarbonetos aromáticos benzeno, tolueno e xilenos, conhecidos como BTX, são compostos tóxicos presentes em efluentes líquidos das indústrias petroquímicas. Esses efluentes quando liberados no meio ambiente contaminam o solo e as águas subterrâneas, comprometendo aquíferos, que representam uma fonte de água potável. Neste contexto é fundamental uma série de estudos para o desenvolvimento de técnicas eficazes para a remoção dos compostos BTX desses efluentes. Dentre as diversas técnicas empregadas atualmente, destacam-se os tratamentos biológicos com biomassa imobilizada. No entanto existem poucos estudos que abordam a mistura de múltiplos substratos. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento de um algoritmo em linguagem MATLAB capaz de estimar os parâmetros cinéticos em um reator de leito fixo com biomassa imobilizada em sistema monocomponente, bicomponente e tricomponente. Foram avaliados modelos cinéticos de Monod, inibição acompetitiva, inibição competitiva e não-competitiva para a mistura de múltiplos substratos com a finalidade de determinar a existência ou não de inibição pelo substrato. Verificou-se através dos resultados que para a biodegradação individual de BTX o biofilme degradou mais rapidamente o tolueno, seguido do benzeno e do o-xileno. Para sistema com múltiplos substratos (bicomponente e tricomponente) determinou-se estatisticamente que a mistura de benzeno, tolueno e o-xileno provocou inibição competitiva. Em sistema tricomponente constatou-se que o biofilme possui maior taxa de biodegradação para o benzeno, seguido do tolueno e do o-xileno, respectivamente. De forma geral, o algoritmo de minimização desenvolvido neste trabalho permitiu prever com eficácia os parâmetros cinéticos em sistema individual e de mistura. Também permitiu predizer diferentes condições de operação de um reator de leito fixo com biomassa imobilizada que atendem à resolução 430 de 13 de maio de 2011 do CONAMA. Abstract : Aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene and xylenes, known as BTX, are toxic compounds present in wastewater of petrochemical industries. These effluents when released into the environment contaminate the soil and groundwater, affecting aquifers, which are a source of drinking water. In this context, it is fundamental the development of effective techniques for the removal of BTX compounds of these effluents. Among the various techniques currently employed, stands out the biological treatment with immobilized biomass, but there are few studies that address the mixture of multiple substrates. The present work aims the development of an algorithm in MATLAB language to estimate the kinetic parameters in a fixed bed reactor with immobilized biomass with one, two and three components. The kinetic models of Monod, uncompetitive inhibition, competitive and non-competitive inhibition for mixture of multiple substrates were evaluated in order to determine the existence or not of inhibition by the substrate. It was found through the results that for individual biodegradation of BTX the biofilm quickly degraded toluene, followed by benzene and o-xylene. For system with multiple substrates (two and three components), it was determined statistically the mixture of benzene, toluene and o-xylene caused competitive inhibition. In three components systems, it was found that the biofilm has highest rate of biodegradation for benzene, followed by toluene and o-xylene, respectively. In general, the minimization algorithm developed in this work allowed to effectively predict the kinetic parameters in single or mixed system and to predict different conditions of operating for a fixed bed reactor with immobilized biomass that meet the CONAMA resolution 430 of 13 May 2011