Impact of Individuals' Commuting Trips on Subjective Well-being: Evidence from Xi’an

Transportation as an important component for urban sustainability has been well recognized. Although the lay understanding of sustainability generally focuses on environmental stewardship, more broadly sustainability is comprised of three aspects: environmental, economic and social sustainability. Individual and societal well-being are critical indicators of social sustainability, however, little attention from research and policy has been paid to the impacts of transportation on well-being. With extensive urban expansion resulting from rapid urbanization, commuting has become a physical and mental burden for many residents in the megacities of China because of the increasing travel distances and worsening travel experiences, significantly influencing their well-being. Relying on the data from a survey conducted in Xi-an, a mega-city of western China, this study quantitatively investigated the relationship between commuting and subjective wellbeing in the Chinese context. Based on the evidence from Xi-an, China, this study found that (1) commute characteristics, including travel mode choice and level of services, significantly influence commuting satisfaction, which in turn significantly affects overall satisfaction with life; (2) the built environment has no direct effect on commuting satisfaction, however it could indirectly affect commuting satisfaction through the path of commuting characteristics; most of travel-related attitudes have both direct and indirect effects on travel satisfaction; (3) the lower income population are more likely to live in pedestrian and transit unfriendly places, are more captive to their travel modes, and have lower levels of life satisfaction; all of which contribute to the lower level of commuting satisfaction among the lower income population. This study contributes to the literature by framing and quantitatively exploring the complicated relationships between the built environment, attitudes, travel characteristics, travel satisfaction and subjective wellbeing. This study also informs policies that help to improve satisfaction with commuting and wellbeing

Spatial distribution of ochre pieces, ochre processing tools and ochre-stained artefacts.

<p>Bubble sizes reflect the frequency of ochre pieces per grid unit. Numbers indicate ochre processing tools and ochre-stained artefacts (OSA) when indicated. Modified after [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0177298#pone.0177298.ref038" target="_blank">38</a>] under a CC BY license, with permission from PLOS ONE, original copyright 2016.</p

Porc-Epic Cave's stratigraphy.

<p>Eastern profile (09W-10W) at the end of the 1974 excavation. The gamma-spectrometry age of a human mandible and the obsidian hydration ages for artefacts recovered during the 1933 excavation are indicated in green and orange, respectively. ¹⁴C ages obtained from gastropod opercula are indicated in blue. Their stratigraphic position is approximate, as only the depth and square from which these objects were recovered is known, and therefore cannot be correlated with a specific layer. Reprinted from [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0177298#pone.0177298.ref038" target="_blank">38</a>] under a CC BY license, with permission from PLOS ONE, original copyright 2016.</p

Experimental grindstones.

<p>Experimental grindstones G1 (A), G2 (B) and G3 (C).</p

Facets and powder produced experimentally.

<p>Photos of facets (A) and experimental powder (B) produced from EXP1, EXP2 and EXP3 with sandstone, quartzite and limestone grindstones.</p

Vertical distribution of modifications identified on ochre lumps.

<p>Data is presented in number of pieces and percentages. (A) Occurrence of each modification type throughout the sequence. Separate histograms are presented for ochre pieces from the northeastern (NEA) and southeastern (SEA) accumulations. (B) Occurrence of main combinations of modifications. Ochre pieces with only one modification or combinations that appear on less than 4 pieces were excluded. FK: flaking, GR: grinding; SC: scraping; SM: smoothing; P: pitting.</p

Combinations of modification types on single ochre pieces.

<p>Combinations of modification types on single ochre pieces.</p

Colours of ochre pieces from Porc-Epic Cave.

<p>(A) Grey numbers represent the number of pieces. Colours per ochre piece are represented in separate histograms. R: red. DR: dark red; G: grey; BR: brown; O: orange; Y: yellow; BL: black. (B) Vertical distribution of main colours and colour associations on ochre pieces. Data is presented in percentages for 10 cm spits. (C) Main colours and colour associations on modified and unmodified ochre pieces by weight. (D) Main colours and colour associations on ochre pieces by raw material type. (E) Main colours and colour associations on ochre pieces by modification type.</p

3D images produced by confocal microscopy of experimental and archaeological facets.

<p>(A) Facet on EXP1 produced with a limestone grindstone. (B) Facet on EXP2 produced with a quartzite grindstone. (C) Facet on EXP3 produced with a quartzite grindstone. (D, E) Facets on ochre piece PE102. (F) Facet on ochre piece PE987. (G) Facet on ochre piece 1491. (H) Facet on ochre piece 1493. (I) Facet on ochre piece 1499. (J) Facet on ochre piece 1677. (K) Facet on ochre piece 1700. (L) Facet on ochre piece 1806.</p

Criteria for the determination of ochre types.

<p>Criteria for the determination of ochre types.</p