Effect of AGE, SEASON, and CONDITION on hair cortisol concentration in squirrels in the highest ranked generalized linear mixed model (0*–reference category), REPRODUCTIVE STATUS, SITE, and EXPERIENCE were excluded during model selection (marginal R² = 0.144 and conditional R² = 0.690 for the highest ranked model).

Effect of AGE, SEASON, and CONDITION on hair cortisol concentration in squirrels in the highest ranked generalized linear mixed model (0*–reference category), REPRODUCTIVE STATUS, SITE, and EXPERIENCE were excluded during model selection (marginal R2 = 0.144 and conditional R2 = 0.690 for the highest ranked model).</p

Boxplot with individual data points and mean (red X) vocalization in squirrels with regard to EXPERIENCE (first-trapped or retrapped) (marginal means from generalized linear mixed model, S3 Table).

Boxplot with individual data points and mean (red X) vocalization in squirrels with regard to EXPERIENCE (first-trapped or retrapped) (marginal means from generalized linear mixed model, S3 Table).</p

Effect of EXPERIENCE and CONDITION on vocalization of squirrels in the highest ranked generalized linear mixed model (0*–reference category), REPRODUCTIVE STATUS, AGE, SITE, and SEASON were excluded during model selection (marginal R² = 0.013 and conditional R² = 0.185 for the highest ranked model).

Effect of EXPERIENCE and CONDITION on vocalization of squirrels in the highest ranked generalized linear mixed model (0*–reference category), REPRODUCTIVE STATUS, AGE, SITE, and SEASON were excluded during model selection (marginal R2 = 0.013 and conditional R2 = 0.185 for the highest ranked model).</p

Average (±SD) values of indicators calculated from raw data for given groups with regard to SITE.

Average (±SD) values of indicators calculated from raw data for given groups with regard to SITE.</p

Ranking of the models (ten highest ranked models and null model) explaining the long-term and medium-term stress in squirrels in generalized linear mixed models with gamma distribution and log link function (ΔAICc—AICc differences, ωi—Akaike weights, Rank—rank of the models based on AICc values; bolded text in the row indicates chosen model (for variable explanation, see: Methods).

Ranking of the models (ten highest ranked models and null model) explaining the long-term and medium-term stress in squirrels in generalized linear mixed models with gamma distribution and log link function (ΔAICc—AICc differences, ωi—Akaike weights, Rank—rank of the models based on AICc values; bolded text in the row indicates chosen model (for variable explanation, see: Methods).</p

Boxplot with individual data points and mean (red X) hair cortisol concentration in squirrels with regard to SEASON (marginal means from generalized linear mixed model, S3 Table).

Boxplot with individual data points and mean (red X) hair cortisol concentration in squirrels with regard to SEASON (marginal means from generalized linear mixed model, S3 Table).</p

Number of samples from squirrels first-trapped (FIRST) and re-trapped (RET) in a given study site.

Number of samples from squirrels first-trapped (FIRST) and re-trapped (RET) in a given study site.</p

Boxplot with individual data points and mean (red X) hair cortisone concentration in squirrels with regard to SEASON (marginal means from generalized linear mixed model, S3 Table).

Boxplot with individual data points and mean (red X) hair cortisone concentration in squirrels with regard to SEASON (marginal means from generalized linear mixed model, S3 Table).</p

Effect of SEASON and CONDITION on fecal cortisol concentration in squirrels in the highest ranked generalized linear mixed model (0*–reference category), REPRODUCTIVE STATUS, AGE, SITE, and EXPERIENCE were excluded during model selection (marginal R² = 0.081 and conditional R² = 0.653 for the highest ranked model).

Effect of SEASON and CONDITION on fecal cortisol concentration in squirrels in the highest ranked generalized linear mixed model (0*–reference category), REPRODUCTIVE STATUS, AGE, SITE, and EXPERIENCE were excluded during model selection (marginal R2 = 0.081 and conditional R2 = 0.653 for the highest ranked model).</p

Mean (±SE) levels of stress indicators observed in forest and urban squirrels (detailed data is presented in S1 Table).

Mean (±SE) levels of stress indicators observed in forest and urban squirrels (detailed data is presented in S1 Table).</p