Language, shame and silence in Tanzanian secondary classrooms

In contexts where schooling is delivered through a language of instruction (LoI) that is unfamiliar to learners, it has repeatedly been observed that students are reluctant to speak, passive, or are even silent. This is most commonly attributed to lack of understanding of the language in use in the classroom. Although this is, undoubtedly, an important part of the explanation, the findings from this ethnographic study of students’ experiences in two secondary schools in Tanzania show that we must also pay close attention to the socio-emotional context in schools and classrooms. In particular, this research summary focuses on the prevalence of fear and shame in students’ experiences of learning, how these emotions contribute to silence, and how the impact of these emotions may be unevenly enacted between and within genders

Exploring children's experiences of schooling in Tanzania: how the ‘hidden curriculum’ undermines aspirations for sustainable development

In the context of aspirations that firmly position education as the key to multiple global development goals, we raise concerns about how education is experienced by many children, particularly in low‐income, postcolonial contexts. Drawing from two, in‐depth qualitative studies in Tanzania, we demonstrate that existing pedagogical practices, including the use of an unfamiliar language of learning and teaching, constitute a ‘hidden curriculum’ that powerfully undermines the vision of education embedded in the sustainable development agenda. We argue that research that foregrounds children's experiences should have a more prominent role as it enables us to understand the lived implications of global policy‐making

Umuzigo w’inyongera : girls’ differential experiences of the double-burden of language and gender in Rwandan English Medium secondary education

This paper argues that learning in an unfamiliar language of learning and teaching (LoLT) negatively impacts Rwandan girls in the early years of lower secondary education. Based on classroom observation and interviews with case-study girls in four Rwandan secondary schools, we show that where girls’ life circumstances differ, so too does the way in which the use of an unfamiliar LoLT affects them. Through the development of five typologies, we explore the ways that when girls face inequalities at the levels of time, space, material and emotional support they have for learning, the requirement that education be conducted and assessed in an unfamiliar language works to compound these inequalities. Our conclusions advocate for greater attention to be paid to the language of learning and teaching in global and national girls’ education policies to alleviate the ‘double burden' that many girls carry

The intersection of gender and language in girls' educational experiences and outcomes in Rwandan basic education

Rwanda is often described as a ‘success story’ in girls’ education, with significant gains in some areas of gender parity. It is also one of the few countries in the world where all children learn from the first day of primary school in a dominant language, in this case, English. Munyaneza and Mugiraneza discuss, in their contribution to this policy brief (page 19), the impact that this is having on learners in the early years. In our study in Rwanda, we focused on girls at the end of both primary (P6) and lower secondary education (S3) to identify the ways that learning in English impacts on girls’ experiences and transitions to latter stages of education. We focus particularly on the years of lower secondary education, when language demands of the curriculum increase, to demonstrate some of the ways that learning in English intersects with socio-economic and cultural gender-based concerns to limit girls’ learning

Negotiating Language and Learning: An ethnographic study of students' experiences in two Tanzanian secondary schools

This thesis is concerned with students’ negotiations of language and learning in multilingual contexts. Students’ experiences of schooling are profoundly shaped by language-in-education policies and practices. In Sub-Saharan Africa, language of instruction policies overwhelmingly give prominence to European languages. This is despite a body of evidence, that has been built up since the 1970s, showing that the use of an unfamiliar language as the language of instruction limits learning. Debates about language of instruction in Africa are crucial, but have tended to become stuck in a conflict of seemingly irreconcilable beliefs and priorities. This thesis asks whether broadening the lens of language-in-education research and exploring the multiple roles that language plays could support the acknowledgment and explanation of these different concerns. It also considers how the conceptual vocabulary offered by the capability approach might help to reframe the debate so that it encapsulates all valued functions and meanings of language and makes a clearer distinction between language-related outcomes and learning processes. Drawing on the analysis of data from an ethnographic study in two Tanzanian secondary schools, this thesis offers a rich, socially-situated account of students’ experiences of negotiating language and learning in their school environments. This demonstrates that language acts not only as a form of communication, but also as an aspiration, a guardian of culture, and an expression of being. The key finding and contribution of this thesis is that students’ experiences of language and learning are characterised by important connections between a range of different language values and language- and education-related capabilities. A more holistic approach to language and education planning and intervention, that recognises and strengthens these connections, could result in more inclusive and equitable learning experiences for students in multilingual environments

Fear and shame : students' experiences in English-medium secondary classrooms in Tanzania

In contexts where schooling is delivered through a language of instruction (LoI) that is unfamiliar to learners, it has repeatedly been observed that students are reluctant to speak, passive, or even silent. This is commonly attributed to lack of understanding of the language in use in the classroom. Although this is, undoubtedly, an important part of the explanation, this paper presents findings from a thematic analysis of lesson observations, interviews, and ethnographic field-notes from two secondary schools in Tanzania to argue that we should also be paying much closer attention to the socio-emotional environment. Specifically, this paper demonstrates the prevalence of feelings of fear and shame in students' experiences of learning and how these emotions contributed to students' silence. However, it also shows that the impact of these emotions was not the same for all students. Informal classroom 'rules' were found to govern how different groups of students were expected to behave in response to questions from teachers, meaning that the risks of speaking English were greater for some students than others. As such, the prevalence of fear and shame is argued to compound existing inequalities amongst students, thus hindering progress towards equitable, inclusive and safe education for all

'We believe we will succeed...because we will "soma kwa bidii"' : acknowledging the key role played by aspirations for 'being' in students' navigations of secondary schooling in Tanzania

With dramatic global expansion of secondary schooling there has been significant research interest in how education is related to future aspirations, with important calls to acknowledge connections within processes of aspiring to young people's social, economic and cultural circumstances. This paper presents findings from thematic analysis of interview, participant observation and classroom observation data from an ethnographic study in two secondary schools in Tanzania. It argues that an important, and often overlooked, aspect of this complex process is the way in which aspirations for the future are connected not only to present realities, but also aspirations in the present. Focusing on students' aspirations relating to 'being a "good" student' and being able to 'soma kwa bidii' or 'study hard', this paper uses the conceptual language of the capability approach to assert the importance of considering aspirations for 'being' in education in conjunction with future aspirations for 'becoming'

Language of instruction: a question of disconnected capabilities

This paper focuses on the issue of language of instruction, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, and considers the persistent preference for monolingual learning environments in multilingual societies. The perception that the use of African languages in education interferes with the acquisition of a global language is shown to be incongruous with current research and theories about multilingual learning and translanguaging. Moreover, drawing from an empirical study in Tanzania, it is observed that the rigid separation of different languages not only has implications for effective language acquisition, but is also associated with negative social consequences for learners. This paper argues that the capability approach can contribute to improved understanding and analysis of these phenomena. In particular, it suggests that several issues relating to language of instruction can be usefully reframed as a problem of disconnected capabilities

Exploring children’s experiences of schooling in Tanzania : how the ‘hidden curriculum’ undermines aspirations for sustainable development

In the context of aspirations that firmly position education as key to multiple global development goals, we raise concerns about how education is experienced by many children, particularly in low-income, postcolonial contexts. Drawing from two, in-depth qualitative studies in Tanzania, we demonstrate that existing pedagogical practices, including the use of an unfamiliar language of learning and teaching, constitute a ‘hidden curriculum’ that powerfully undermines the vision of education embedded in the sustainable development agenda. We argue that research that foregrounds children’s experiences should have a more prominent role as it enables us to understand the lived implications of global policy-making