Phenotypic Variation and Bistable Switching in Bacteria

Microbial research generally focuses on clonal populations. However, bacterial cells with identical genotypes frequently display different phenotypes under identical conditions. This microbial cell individuality is receiving increasing attention in the literature because of its impact on cellular differentiation, survival under selective conditions, and the interaction of pathogens with their hosts. It is becoming clear that stochasticity in gene expression in conjunction with the architecture of the gene network that underlies the cellular processes can generate phenotypic variation. An important regulatory mechanism is the so-called positive feedback, in which a system reinforces its own response, for instance by stimulating the production of an activator. Bistability is an interesting and relevant phenomenon, in which two distinct subpopulations of cells showing discrete levels of gene expression coexist in a single culture. In this chapter, we address techniques and approaches used to establish phenotypic variation, and relate three well-characterized examples of bistability to the molecular mechanisms that govern these processes, with a focus on positive feedback.

Influência do local de ancoragem dos implantes na vértebra sobre o torque de inserção e resistência ao arrancamento Influencia de la ubicación de los implantes en la vértebra cuanto al torque de inserción y resistencia de arrancamiento Influence of anatomical vertebral site on screw insertion torque and pull-out strength

OBJETIVO: Avaliar a influência do sítio anatômico da ancoragem dos implantes na vértebra sobre a resistência ao arrancamento e o torque de inserção dos parafusos pediculares com alma cônica e cilíndrica. MÉTODOS: Parafusos cilíndricos e com alma cônica foram inseridos no pedículo e corpo vertebral de 10 vértebras lombares (L4-L5) de vitelos. Foram avaliados o torque de inserção e a resistência ao arrancamento dos parafusos inseridos no corpo e no pedículo vertebral. RESULTADOS: Os valores do torque de inserção e resistência ao arrancamento foram maiores nos parafusos de alma cilíndrica e alma cônica inseridos no pedículo vertebral. CONCLUSÕES: A ancoragem dos implantes no pedículo vertebral apresentou maiores valores do torque de inserção e da força de arrancamento que os implantes inseridos no corpo vertebral nos dois tipos de parafusos utilizados.<br>OBJETIVO: Evaluar la influencia de la localización anatómica de la fijación de los implantes en la vértebra cuanto al torque de inserción y resistencia de arrancamiento de los tornillos con alma cónica y cilíndrica. MÉTODOS: Los tornillos con alma cilíndrica y cónica se insertan en el cuerpo y el pedículo vertebral de diez vértebras lumbares (L4-L5) de los terneros. Se evaluó el torque de inserción y resistencia al arrancamiento de tornillos insertados en el cuerpo y el pedículo. RESULTADOS: El torque de inserción y resistencia al arrancamiento fue mayor para los tornillos con alma cónica y cilíndrica insertados en el pedículo. CONCLUSIONES: La fijación de los implantes en el pedículo mostró mayor torque de inserción y resistencia al arrancamiento en comparación con los implantes en el cuerpo vertebral, en ambos tipos de tornillos.<br>OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of anatomical site of implants on vertebra about insertion torque and pull-out strength of conical and cylindrical core screws. METHODS: Conical and cylindrical core screws were inserted into the pedicle and vertebral body of 10 lumbar vertebrae (L4-L5) of calves. In the study were evaluated insertion torque and pull-out strength of screws inserted into the body and pedicle. RESULTS: The insertion torque and pull-out strength were higher for conical and cylindrical core screws inserted into vertebral pedicle. CONCLUSIONS: The anchoring of implants into the pedicle showed higher insertion torque and pull-out strength than implants inserted into the vertebral body in both types of screws used

Investigation of toggling effect on pullout performance of pedicle screws

Objective of this study is to assess the pullout performance of various pedicle screws in different test materials after toggling tests comparatively. Solid core, cannulated (cemented), novel expandable and solid-core (cemented) pedicle screws were instrumented to the polyurethane foams (Grade 10 and Grade 40) produced in laboratory and bovine vertebra. ASTM F543 standard was used for preparation process of samples. Toggling tests were carried out. After toggling test procedures, pullout tests were performed. Load versus displacement graph was recorded, and the ultimate pullout force was defined as the maximum load (pullout strength) sustained before failure of screw. Anteriosuperior and oblique radiographs were taken from each sample after instrumentation in order to examine screw placement and cement distribution. The pullout strength of pedicle screws decreased after toggling tests with respect to the initial condition. While the cemented solid-core pedicle screws had the highest pullout strength in all test materials, they had the highest strength differences. The cemented solid-core pedicle screws had decrement rates of 27% and 16% in Grade 10 and Grade 40, respectively. There are almost same decrement rate (between 5.5% and 6.5%) for all types of pedicle screws instrumented to the samples of bovine vertebra. The pullout strengths of novel expandable pedicle screws in both of early period and after toggling conditions were almost similar, in other words, the decrement rates of it were lower than other types. According to the data collected from this study, polymethylmethacrylate augmentation significantly decreases pullout strength following the toggling loads. Higher brittleness of cured polymethylmethacrylate has adverse effect on the pullout strength. Although augmentation is an important process for enhancing pullout strength in early period, it has some disadvantages for preserving stabilization in a long time. Expandable pedicle screw with polyetheretherketone shell may be good alternative to polymethylmethacrylate augmentation on both primer stabilization and long-term loading application with toggling

Pullout performance comparison of novel expandable pedicle screw with expandable poly-ether-ether-ketone shells and cement-augmented pedicle screws

Aim of this study is to assess the pullout performance of various pedicle screws in different test materials. Polyurethane foams (Grade 10 and Grade 40) produced in laboratory and bovine vertebrae were instrumented with normal, cannulated (cemented), novel expandable and normal (cemented) pedicle screws. Test samples were prepared according to the ASTM F543 standard testing protocols and surgical guidelines. To examine the screw placement and cement distribution, anteriosuperior and oblique radiographs were taken from each sample after insertion process was completed. Pullout tests were performed in an Instron 3369 testing device. Load versus displacement graphs were recorded and the ultimate pullout force was defined as the maximum load (pullout strength) sustained before failure of screw. Student's t-test was performed on each group whether the differences between pullout strength of pedicle screws were significant or not. While normal pedicle screws have the lowest pullout strength in all test materials, normal pedicle screws cemented with polymethylmethacrylate exhibit significantly higher pullout performance than others. For all test materials, there is a significant improvement in pullout strength of normal screws by augmentation. While novel expandable pedicle screws with expandable poly-ether-ether-ketone shells exhibited lower pullout performance than normal screws cemented with polymethylmethacrylate, their pullout performances in all groups were higher than the ones of normal and cannulated pedicle screws. For all test materials, although cannulated pedicle screws exhibit higher pullout strength than normal pedicle screws, there are no significant differences between the two groups. The novel expandable pedicle screws with expandable poly-ether-ether-ketone shells may be used instead of normal and cannulated pedicle screws cemented with polymethylmethacrylate due to their good performances