On the Growth and Welfare Effects of Defense R&D

In the US, defense R&D share of GDP has decreased significantly since 1960. To analyze the implications on growth and welfare, we develop an R&D-based growth model that features the crowding-out and spillover effects of defense R&D on civilian R&D. The model also captures the effects of defense technology on (i) national security resembling consumption-type public goods and (ii) aggregate productivity via the spin-off effect resembling productive public goods. In this framework, economic growth is driven by market-based civilian R&D as in standard R&D-based growth models and government-financed public goods (i.e., defense R&D) as in Barro (1990). We find that defense R&D has an inverted-U effect on growth, and the growth-maximizing level of defense R&D is increasing in the spillover and spin-off effects. As for the welfare-maximizing level of defense R&D, it is increasing in the security-enhancing effect of defense technology, and there exists a critical degree of this security-enhancing effect below (above) which the welfare-maximizing level is below (above) the growth-maximizing level

Heat map of the decoded tree’s properties.

Obtained by a grid search in , moving one node (green diamond) through embedding space. a, d) joint probability p(T, Y), b, e) symmetric difference from best tree topology and c, f) total length. Top row curvature κ = −1 and bottom row κ = −1000. Black dots are the fixed locations of the remaining nodes.</p

Supporting text with appendices.

Appendix A: MCMC details. Appendix B: Wrapping proposal vectors onto the hyperboloid. Appendix C: Impact of Normal prior on posterior. Appendix D: Closed form pf projection Jacobians. Appendix E: Algorithm Run Time. Appendix F: Datasets. Appendix G: Effective sample size. (PDF)</p

Comparison between MrBayes and Dodonaphy’s MCMC starting from the evolutionary distances.

Comparison of (a) posterior probability trace, (b) split frequencies with 95% confidence intervals (CI), (red dots: MrBayes value not covered by CI), (c) mean branch lengths (leaf edges in blue circles, internal edges in red diamonds), (d) total tree length estimation of 10 repeats. Markers in (c) are shaded by the frequency of appearance in the golden run. In (a, d) black lines show the two MrBayes runs and thin blue lines show Dodonaphy’s results.</p

Hyperbolic embedding of eight taxa.

Eight points (taxa) lie on a two-dimensional hyperboloid sheet in . Arrows indicate how each two-dimensional point (x1, x2) is deterministically projected up onto the sheet by ϕ. The green dashed line illustrates that the distance between two taxa is the length of the geodesic on the hyperboloid surface.</p

SPR distances of samples about an embedded tree.

SPR distance of trees sampled from a Multivariate Gaussian (covariance Σ × I) about a tree containing 100 leaves embedded in with curvature κ = −1. Distributions are estimated from 2000 samples.</p

Effect of embedding dimension on the posterior distribution.

Comparison to the true posterior of: a, d) ASDSF, b, e) relative difference in median tree length, c, f) relative difference in the variance of tree length. Top row curvature κ = −1, bottom row κ = −100. Truncated variance ratio in c) for DS3 with d = 2 is 16.41 and 39.05 for DS7.</p

Effect of embedding curvature on the posterior distribution.

Comparison to the true posterior of: a) ASDSF, b) relative difference in median tree length, c) relative difference in the variance of tree length. The truncated variance ratio for DS5 is approximately zero. The right side corresponds to flatter (and Euclidean) curvature (κ = 0 gives log10(−κ) = −∞) and the left side is more curved.</p

Raw reads from Kocuria sp. str. UCD-OTCP genome sequencing project

<p>Raw paired-end 160bp Illumina MiSeq reads from genomic sequencing of Kocuria sp. str. UCD-OTCP</p

Additional file 2: of Near full-length 16S rRNA gene next-generation sequencing revealed Asaia as a common midgut bacterium of wild and domesticated Queensland fruit fly larvae

Primers used to tag 16S molecules. (DOCX 20 kb