Key Questions and Recent Research Advances on Harmful Algal Blooms in Benthic Systems

26 pages, 3 figures, 3 tablesEndemic in tropical areas, ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP), caused by the toxins produced by benthic dinoflagellates mostly of the genus Gambierdiscus, has significant long-term health effects. In recent years, CFP and new species of Gambierdiscus from subtropical waters and the Mediterranean Sea are being reported (Fraga and Rodríguez 2014; Fraga et al. 2011, 2016; Nishimura et al. 2014). Similarly, Ostreopsis, another benthic dinoflagellate genus traditionally found associated with Gambierdiscus in tropical areas, seems to be expanding to relatively colder waters and temperate latitudes (Rhodes 2011). In the tropics, Ostreopsis siamensis was first related to certain fish poisonings (palytoxicosis; e.g., Randall 2005). In the last two decades, frequent and intense outbreaks of Ostreopsis cf. ovata and O. siamensis have been documented in the Mediterranean and New Zealand waters, associated with faunal damage and human respiratory problems. Fortunately, seafood poisonings have not been reported in these areas. The scenario of more frequent BHAB events with range extensions to higher latitudes is especially troubling because the knowledge of BHAB species is nascent and, even in developed nations, the regulatory and monitoring infrastructure is not adequate to protect public health and marine resources (GEOHAB 2012). [...]Peer reviewe