An evaluation of Paralytic Shellfish Toxin occurrence and magnitude around the UK coast since 2008; using chemotaxonomy to maximise routine monitoring data

A dedicated monitoring programme exists within the UK for the analysis of marine biotoxins of microalgal origin, in shellfish from classified production areas. For England, Wales and Scotland this is currently delivered by Cefas on behalf of the Food Standards Agency (FSA) and Food Standards Scotland (FSS). This monitoring programme tests for three groups of toxins, including the paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), using chemical analytical techniques, as well as identifying their causative organisms, using light microscopy. Although toxicity and toxin profile within shellfish from around the UK is well documented, since the implementation of chemical analytical testing, the underlying causative microalgal species remain undetermined in most areas. This is due to a lack of resource within the monitoring programme to perform definitive identification following light microscopy and a lack of specific research work confirming the toxin producers in all areas. Presented here is an analysis of PST shellfish toxicity data from the UK monitoring programme displaying trends in distribution and magnitude of PSTs in shellfish over the last 15 years of monitoring. Further to this, toxin profile data generated following the implementation of HPLC-FLD for monitoring PSTs is analysed. This PST toxin profile analysis is used to offer a possible proxy method for the identification of microalgal species by their differing PST toxin profile as presented in the literature. The possible distribution of causative organisms is evaluated using this chemotaxonomic technique to allow for targeted future work

A review of the global distribution of Alexandrium minutum (Dinophyceae) and comments on ecology and associated paralytic shellfish toxin profiles, with a focus on Northern Europe

Alexandrium minutum is a globally distributed harmful algal bloom species with many strains that are known to produce paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) and consequently represent a concern to human and ecosystem health. This review highlights that A. minutum typically occurs in sheltered locations, with cell growth occurring during periods of stable water conditions. Sediment characteristics are important in the persistence of this species within a location, with fine sediments providing cyst deposits for ongoing inoculation to the water column. Toxic strains of A. minutum do not produce a consistent toxin profile, different populations produce a range of PSTs in differing quantities. Novel cluster analysis of published A. minutum toxin profiles indicates five PST profile clusters globally. Some clusters are grouped geographically (Northern Europe) whilst others are widely spread. Isolates from Taiwan have a range of toxin profile clusters and this area appears to have the most diverse set of PST producing A. minutum populations. These toxin profiles indicate that within the UK there are two populations of A. minutum grouping with strains from Northern France and Southern Ireland. There is a degree of interconnectivity in this region due to oceanic circulation and a high level of shipping and recreational boating. Further research into the interrelationships between the A. minutum populations in this global region would be of value

Scalar Electrodynamics and Primordial Magnetic Fields

A primordial magnetic field may be generated during an inflationary period if conformal invariance is broken. We reexamine and generalize previous results about the magnetic field produced by couplings of the form $R^n F_{\mu\nu}F^{\mu\nu}$. We show that the amplitude of the magnetic field depends strongly on $n$. For adequate values of $n$ the field produced can serve as seed for galactic magnetic fields. We also compute the effective interaction between the electromagnetic field and the geometry in the context of scalar QED (with and without classical conformal invariance). In both cases, the amplitude of the magnetic field is too small to be of astrophysical interest.Comment: 16 pages, LaTeX, no figure

Friends or Foes? Emerging Impacts of Biological Toxins

Toxins are substances produced from biological sources (e.g., animal, plants, microorganisms) that have deleterious effects on a living organism. Despite the obvious health concerns of being exposed to toxins, they are having substantial positive impacts in a number of industrial sectors. Several toxin-derived products are approved for clinical, veterinary, or agrochemical uses. This review sets out the case for toxins as ‘friends’ that are providing the basis of novel medicines, insecticides, and even nucleic acid sequencing technologies. We also discuss emerging toxins (‘foes’) that are becoming increasingly prevalent in a range of contexts through climate change and the globalisation of food supply chains and that ultimately pose a risk to health

Cyanobacterial Abundance and Microcystin Profiles in Two Southern British Lakes: The Importance of Abiotic and Biotic Interactions.

Freshwater cyanobacteria blooms represent a risk to ecological and human health through induction of anoxia and release of potent toxins; both conditions require water management to mitigate risks. Many cyanobacteria taxa may produce microcystins, a group of toxic cyclic heptapeptides. Understanding the relationships between the abiotic drivers of microcystins and their occurrence would assist in the implementation of targeted, cost-effective solutions to maintain safe drinking and recreational waters. Cyanobacteria and microcystins were measured by flow cytometry and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry in two interconnected reservoirs varying in age and management regimes, in southern Britain over a 12-month period. Microcystins were detected in both reservoirs, with significantly higher concentrations in the southern lake (maximum concentration >7 µg L-1). Elevated microcystin concentrations were not positively correlated with numbers of cyanobacterial cells, but multiple linear regression analysis suggested temperature and dissolved oxygen explained a significant amount of the variability in microcystin across both reservoirs. The presence of a managed fishery in one lake was associated with decreased microcystin levels, suggestive of top down control on cyanobacterial populations. This study supports the need to develop inclusive, multifactor holistic water management strategies to control cyanobacterial risks in freshwater bodies