CONSERVATION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS DURING BACTERIAL GROWTH

In experiments of 6 hours duration, no replacement of phosphorus or purine and pyrimidine carbon in DNA, nor flow of these atoms from RNA to DNA, could be detected in rapidly growing cultures of E. coli. The slow replacement that has been demonstrated for many substances in non-proliferating tissues of other organisms, though it may occur also in bacteria, is not greatly accelerated under conditions of rapid cellular growth, and therefore cannot be a characteristic feature of synthetic processes

FACTORS LIMITING BACTERIAL GROWTH : III. CELL SIZE AND "PHYSIOLOGIC YOUTH" IN BACTERIUM COLI CULTURES

1. Measurements of the rate of oxygen uptake per cell in transplants of Bacterium coli from cultures of this organism in different phases of growth have given results in essential agreement with the observations of others. 2. Correlations of viable count, centrifugable nitrogen, and turbidity, with oxygen consumption, indicate that the increased metabolism during the early portion of the growth period is quantitatively referable to increased average size of cells. 3. Indirect evidence has suggested that the initial rate of growth of transplants is not related to the phase of growth of the parent culture

THE INFLUENCE OF HOST RESISTANCE ON VIRUS INFECTIVITY AS EXEMPLIFIED WITH BACTERIOPHAGE

Parker (1) has shown that the results of infectivity measurements with vaccinia virus may be interpreted as a Poisson distribution of single infective particles among aliquots of the virus obtained by dilution. Thus, if it may be assumed that there exists a quantity of virus invariably necessary and invariably sufficient to produce a lesion in the skin of the rabbit, the behavior on dilution requires this quantity to be a single indivisible particle. However, if the possibility exists that some independently varying factor influences the appearance of lesions in the inoculated sites, the Poisson distribution is inapplicable, and a different conclusion is reached. In this case the results can only be interpreted as an indication of a particular kind of dose response among the animals tested. Bryan and Beard (2) have called attention to the fact that the single particle response curve has considerable resemblance to the hyperbolic curves characteristic of certain drugs (per cent of positive responses plotted against dosage). Their discussion gives the impression that the reverse is also necessarily true. Actually

INDEPENDENT FUNCTIONS OF VIRAL PROTEIN AND NUCLEIC ACID IN GROWTH OF BACTERIOPHAGE

1. Osmotic shock disrupts particles of phage T2 into material containing nearly all the phage sulfur in a form precipitable by antiphage serum, and capable of specific adsorption to bacteria. It releases into solution nearly all the phage DNA in a form not precipitable by antiserum and not adsorbable to bacteria. The sulfur-containing protein of the phage particle evidently makes up a membrane that protects the phage DNA from DNase, comprises the sole or principal antigenic material, and is responsible for attachment of the virus to bacteria. 2. Adsorption of T2 to heat-killed bacteria, and heating or alternate freezing and thawing of infected cells, sensitize the DNA of the adsorbed phage to DNase. These treatments have little or no sensitizing effect on unadsorbed phage. Neither heating nor freezing and thawing releases the phage DNA from infected cells, although other cell constituents can be extracted by these methods. These facts suggest that the phage DNA forms part of an organized intracellular structure throughout the period of phage growth. 3. Adsorption of phage T2 to bacterial debris causes part of the phage DNA to appear in solution, leaving the phage sulfur attached to the debris. Another part of the phage DNA, corresponding roughly to the remaining half of the DNA of the inactivated phage, remains attached to the debris but can be separated from it by DNase. Phage T4 behaves similarly, although the two phages can be shown to attach to different combining sites. The inactivation of phage by bacterial debris is evidently accompanied by the rupture of the viral membrane. 4. Suspensions of infected cells agitated in a Waring blendor release 75 per cent of the phage sulfur and only 15 per cent of the phage phosphorus to the solution as a result of the applied shearing force. The cells remain capable of yielding phage progeny. 5. The facts stated show that most of the phage sulfur remains at the cell surface and most of the phage DNA enters the cell on infection. Whether sulfur-free material other than DNA enters the cell has not been determined. The properties of the sulfur-containing residue identify it as essentially unchanged membranes of the phage particles. All types of evidence show that the passage of phage DNA into the cell occurs in non-nutrient medium under conditions in which other known steps in viral growth do not occur. 6. The phage progeny yielded by bacteria infected with phage labeled with radioactive sulfur contain less than 1 per cent of the parental radioactivity. The progeny of phage particles labeled with radioactive phosphorus contain 30 per cent or more of the parental phosphorus. 7. Phage inactivated by dilute formaldehyde is capable of adsorbing to bacteria, but does not release its DNA to the cell. This shows that the interaction between phage and bacterium resulting in release of the phage DNA from its protective membrane depends on labile components of the phage particle. By contrast, the components of the bacterium essential to this interaction are remarkably stable. The nature of the interaction is otherwise unknown. 8. The sulfur-containing protein of resting phage particles is confined to a protective coat that is responsible for the adsorption to bacteria, and functions as an instrument for the injection of the phage DNA into the cell. This protein probably has no function in the growth of intracellular phage. The DNA has some function. Further chemical inferences should not be drawn from the experiments presented

THE MORTALITY OF BACTERIOPHAGE CONTAINING ASSIMILATED RADIOACTIVE PHOSPHORUS

The bacteriophage T4 containing assimilated radioactive phosphorus is inactivated at a rate proportional to the specific radioactivity of the constituent phosphorus. The beta radiation from the phosphorus makes a negligible contribution to this effect. The inactivation is therefore a direct consequence of the nuclear reaction, which kills the phage with an efficiency of about 1/12. Several phages related to T4 behave similarly. When radioactive phage is grown from a seed of non-radioactive phage, all of the phage progeny are subject to killing by radioactive decay. The phage is killed by beta radiation from P32 with an efficiency of about 1/100 per ionization within the particle volume. Bacteriophage T4 and its relatives contain about 500,000 atoms of phosphorus per infective particle. Virtually all this phosphorus is adsorbed to bacteria with the specificity characteristic of the infective particles, and none of it can be removed from the particles by the enzyme desoxyribonuclease. The phosphorus content per particle, together with the published data on analytical composition, indicates a particle diameter close to 110 mµ for the varieties of phage studied

An Examination of Wladimir Kaminer’s Humor

Humor is a quality of amusement that is evoked by mishap plus time. The source of the mishap may be a crude theme, embarrassing situation or interpersonal clash caused by various incongruencies. One must be chronologically and spatially removed from the occurrence for the situation to be considered humorous. The audience must have the ability to recognize and relate to the absurdity. Scholars recognize three main theories of humor. Superiority theory involves the application of judgement and superiority on themes or people who are often perceived as crude, lowly, or controversial. Relief theory sees humor as a means by which tense or embarrassing situations can be relieved, in which no harm is done to those involved. Incongruity theory emerges in situations where stark or subtle differences in culture or expectations cause an interpersonal clash, where each supposes his is the authentic perspective and the other’s the improper. Wladimir Kaminer (b. 1967) is a Russian-born immigrant to Germany and best-selling author of more than 20 books that describe the humorous interactions between Germans and immigrants to that country, especially Russians. To determine which theory best explained the humor in Kaminer’s works, each group member read one of Kaminer’s books, then suggested three chapters from their book that best highlight the humor of their respective title for group analysis. The chapters were analyzed by each group member for categorization under one, two, or all three theories of humor. The results were entered into a chart to visualize the distribution of the group’s individual evaluations of each chapter. A Venn diagram best illustrates our results, which show that the humor of most of the chapters is best explained by a combination of at least two theories with Incongruity Theory being the most common element of every combination. Conclusion After the four researchers examined 12 stories from four books, they determined that humor is most commonly displayed as a combination of two to three of the theories. Particularly in the humor of Wladimir Kaminer, incogruency theory forms the basis of most cases of humor. “The incongruity theory is the most important of the three explanation models since every comic effect can be traced back to a moment of incongruity” (Bogomolova 2010, p. 20)