Governing Agricultural Biotechnologies in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany: A Trans-decadal Study of Regulatory Cultures

Comparative studies of agricultural biotechnology regulation have highlighted differences in the roles that science and politics play in decision-making. Drawing on documentary and interview evidence in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany, we consider how the "regulatory cultures" that guided national responses to earlier generations of agricultural biotechnology have developed, alongside the emergence of genome editing in food crops. We find that aspects of the "product-based" regulatory approach have largely been maintained in US biosafety frameworks and that the British and German approaches have at different stages combined "process-based" and "programmatic" elements that address the scientific and sociopolitical novelty of genome editing to varying degrees. We seek to explain these patterns of stability and change by exploring how changing opportunity structures in each jurisdiction have enabled or constrained public reasoning around emerging agricultural biotechnologies. By showing how opportunity structures and regulatory cultures interact over the long-term, we provide insights that help us to interpret current and evolving dynamics in the governance of genome editing and the longer-term development of agricultural biotechnology

Air gasification of woody biomass from short rotation forests : opportunities for small scale biomass-electricity systems : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agricultural Engineering at Massey University, New Zealand

Content removed due to copyright restriction Senelwa, K., & Sims, R. E. H. (1997). Tree biomass equations for short rotation eucalypts grown in new zealand. Biomass and Bioenergy, 13(3), 133-140Downdraft gasification of short rotation forestry (SRF) biomass was investigated to identify opportunities for small scale biomass-electricity systems. Case studies were conducted in Kenya to identify these opportunities by (i) defining the energy demand and supply structure to identify markets; (ii) evaluating the biomass resources available; and (iii) identifying the availability of other facilities required for such a system. At the same time, the yield potential of 12 SRF species, planted in Palmerston North, New Zealand in small plots at 3470 stems/ha and harvested after 2, 3, 4 and 5 years was evaluated. Samples were collected from each species to determine their energy properties. Data on tree growth, yield, and biomass properties were used to develop two multi-objective indices - the relative yield index (RYI) and the fuelwood value index (FVI) for evaluating SRF species. Biomass from the 4 year rotation harvest was used as feedstock to fuel a downdraft air gasifier rated 35 kW (electric). Feedstock gasification processes, gas quantity and quality were correlated with the biomass properties to define the characteristics of a good fuelwood species for gasification purposes. The Kenyan studies highlighted constraints in the energy sector and identified opportunities for new bioenergy technologies. Small scale biomass gasification systems showed potential but suitable sites were restricted to sawmills where processing residues could be used as gasifier feedstock. Field trials of SRF systems were recommended to evaluate tree species over different silvicultural treatments, and to intensify biomass production. A demonstration plant at one of the bigger sawmills was recommended to stimulate interest among investors. Species yields of the trial plantings in New Zealand in the 12 species assessed ranged from 6 ODt/ha/y for Alnus glutinosa to 73 ODt/ha/y for Eucalyptus globulus at 5 year rotations. A stocking density trial of E.saligna showed that 3,500 stems/ha managed on 4-5 year rotations provided the highest yields. Though these yields may not be achieved in field plantings or in Kenya, the study demonstrated the feasibility and methodology that could be applied. Like yield, the bioenergy properties varied between species. Higher heating values ranged from 19.6-20.5 MJ/kg for wood, 17.8-20.6 MJ/kg for bark, and 19.5-24.1 MJ/kg for leaves. Gas yields varied between 1.88-2.89 g/g dry wood due mainly to moisture content variations which also affected the composition of the gas. Gas heating values varied from 4.602 to 6.112 MJ/Nm3, and were considered to be of sufficient quality to fuel internal combustion engines. Both RYI and FVI showed that yield factors outweighed bioenergy properties when identifying a good fuelwood species. The large differences in yields indicated the benefits that could be achieved by selecting appropriate species for a specific region. Although feedstock properties affected the gasification processes and products, their overall influence was not statistically significant. The inclusion of bark in the feedstock did not adversely affect the suitability of the feedstock

Understanding the diffusion and adoption of digital finance innovation in emerging economies: M-Pesa money mobile transfer service in Kenya

The growth of digital financial innovations in emerging economies varies across countries with Kenya’s mobile money transactions leading in Africa. Empirical evidence is lacking to describe from a system perspective the major factors attributing to this. Among the major money mobile transfer innovations, M-Pesa has recorded a tremendous impact since its launch in 2007. Consequently, this paper uses M-Pesa as a case study to understand the determinants of the success of digital financial innovations in an emerging economy. The analysis is applied at the level of technological innovation system (TIS), a framework that has provided useful insights into the functions that need to be stimulated for the successful deployment of innovative technologies. The analysis exposes key systemic functions that characterize M-Pesa rapid diffusion in Kenya. The study finds that TIS framework can be applied to explain the diffusion and uptake of a new technology. However, local adaptation process attracts critical coordination aspects, significant learning and localized capabilities attributed to M-Pesa rapid expansion. These aspects are not explicitly articulated in the TIS literature. The study concludes with policy recommendations towards stimulation of key functions that may support diffusion of digital financial innovations in emerging economies

Towards a smart biosafety regulation: the case of Kenya

It is emerging that benefits of new innovations in agricultural biotechnology may not be realised without appropriate biosafety regulatory mechanisms. The Kenyan regulatory experiences related to regulation of genetically engineered (GE) agricultural activities are explored to provide some basis for defining the challenges involved in biosafety regulation. The various shortcomings in the way the Kenyan biosafety process has been implemented are consistent with the way regulatory systems have been evolving in Africa. The proposed adoption of a “smart regulation” provides the basis for a learning process through which subsequent biotechnology policy initiatives can be improved

Beyond the Genome: Genetically Modified Crops in Africa and the Implications for Genome Editing

Genome editing — a plant-breeding technology that facilitates the manipulation of genetic traits within living organisms — has captured the imagination of scholars and professionals working on agricultural development in Africa. Echoing the arrival of genetically modified (GM) crops decades ago, genome editing is being heralded as a technology with the potential to revolutionize breeding based on enhanced precision, reduced cost and increased speed. In this article, we make two interventions. First, we identify the discursive continuity linking genome editing and the earlier technology of genetic modification. Second, we offer a suite of recommendations regarding how lessons learned from GM crops might be integrated into future breeding programmes focused on genome editing. Ultimately, we argue that donors, policy makers, and scientists should move beyond the genome towards systems-level thinking by: prioritizing the co-development of technologies with farmers, using plant material that is unencumbered by intellectual property restrictions and accessible to resource-poor farmers, and acknowledging that seeds are components of complex and dynamic agro-ecological production systems . If these lessons are not heeded, genome-editing projects are in danger of repeating mistakes of the past.Erasmus+ programme of the European Union (Agreement number: 611150-EPP-1-2019-1-CA-EPPJMO-NETWORK - 2019-1887)

Beyond the Genome: Lessons Learned from Genetically Modified Crops in Africa and the Implications for Genome Editing

Genome editing — a plant-breeding technology that facilitates the manipulation of genetic traits within living organisms — has captured the imagination of scholars and professionals working on agricultural development in Africa. Echoing the arrival of genetically modified (GM) crops decades ago, genome editing is being heralded as a technology with the potential to revolutionize breeding based on enhanced precision, reduced cost and increased speed. In this article, we make two interventions. First, we identify the discursive continuity linking genome editing and the earlier technology of genetic modification. Second, we offer a suite of recommendations regarding how lessons learned from GM crops might be integrated into future breeding programmes focused on genome editing. Ultimately, we argue that donors, policy makers, and scientists should move beyond the genome towards systems-level thinking by: prioritizing the co-development of technologies with farmers, using plant material that is unencumbered by intellectual property restrictions and accessible to resource-poor farmers, and acknowledging that seeds are components of complex and dynamic agro-ecological production systems . If these lessons are not heeded, genome-editing projects are in danger of repeating mistakes of the past.Erasmus+ programme of the European Union (Agreement number: 611150-EPP-1-2019-1-CA-EPPJMO-NETWORK - 2019-1887)

Governing agricultural biotechnologies in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany: a trans-decadal study of regulatory cultures

Comparative studies of agricultural biotechnology regulation have highlighted differences in the roles that science and politics play in decision-making. Drawing on documentary and interview evidence in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany, we consider how the “regulatory cultures” that guided national responses to earlier generations of agricultural biotechnology have developed, alongside the emergence of genome editing in food crops. We find that aspects of the “product-based” regulatory approach have largely been maintained in US biosafety frameworks and that the British and German approaches have at different stages combined “process-based” and “programmatic” elements that address the scientific and sociopolitical novelty of genome editing to varying degrees. We seek to explain these patterns of stability and change by exploring how changing opportunity structures in each jurisdiction have enabled or constrained public reasoning around emerging agricultural biotechnologies. By showing how opportunity structures and regulatory cultures interact over the long-term, we provide insights that help us to interpret current and evolving dynamics in the governance of genome editing and the longer-term development of agricultural biotechnology.</p

The knowledge politics of genome editing in Africa

How is the promise of crop genome editing viewed by scientists working with or aspiring to work with the technology, by development experts seeking to mold public perceptions and policy attitudes toward genome editing, and by donors that provide funds for genome-editing research for agricultural applications in sub- Saharan Africa? In this article, we present data from interviews with these stakeholders to shed light on their aspirations, concerns, and expectations. Previous scholarship on genome editing in relation to African agriculture has focused on the technical capabilities of genome editing techniques and surveys of current research and development activities in this field. This article contextualizes and reflects critically on expectations that genome editing can or will deliver benefits for African scientists and farmers. The interviews reveal excitement around genome editing and anticipation for what it could achieve, but also a sober realism and frustration regarding the political-economic hurdles that constrain African scientists and research institutions and the generation of public goods forAfrican farmers and societies.These insights, we show, challenge extant narratives related to genome editing and accessibility. As such, we center and interrogate the politics of knowledge surrounding the emergence of genome editing in Africa.</p