118 research outputs found

    ํˆฌ๋ช…์„ธํฌ ์‹ ์„ธํฌ์•”์˜ ์ง„ํ–‰์—์„œ PD-L1๊ณผ EGFR, ERK1/2์˜ ์ƒํ˜ธ์ž‘์šฉ์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ (๋ฐ•์‚ฌ)-- ์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต ๋Œ€ํ•™์› : ์˜๊ณผ๋Œ€ํ•™ ์˜ํ•™๊ณผ, 2019. 2. ๋ฌธ๊ฒฝ์ฒ .Introduction: The interaction between the programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) is known to suppress T cell function. The overexpressed PD-L1 in tumor cells inhibits the antitumor effect of the cytotoxic T cells by binding PD-1 on the tumor-infiltrating cytotoxic T cells, and then creates a favorable environment for the survival of tumor cells. Although the pathways involved in the expression of PD-L1 remain unclear, immunotherapy against PD-1 and PD-L1 has been tried in various malignant tumors, including renal cell carcinomas. Recent studies reported that activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and thereby activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), resulted in expression of PD-L1 in non-small cell lung cancer. Previous studies showed EGFR is overexpressed in clear cell renal cell carcinomas (CCRCC) and other studies showed phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (p-ERK1/2) and PD-L1 are also expressed in CCRCC. It is uncertain however what are roles of these key molecules in the growth of CCRCC and how they are regulated. In this study, I evaluated EGFR-ERK1/2-PD-L1 pathway in CCRCC to elucidate the significance of expression of PD-L1 in the activation of EGFR and ERK1/2. Methods: To study signaling pathways involved in PD-L1 regulation mediated by p-ERK1/2, I performed western blot analysis for two human CCRCC cell lines, Caki-1 and Caki-2 after treatment with stimulant of ERK1/2 pathway, recombinant human epidermal growth factor or inhibitor of ERK1/2 pathway, U0126. I performed immunohistochemical staining for PD-L1, EGFR and p-ERK1/2 for 368 CCRCC surgical samples and analyzed the correlation between each degree of staining and clinicopathologic factors. To validate the immunohistochemical results of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) samples, I examined 16 fresh frozen CCRCC samples and analyzed the relationship of PD-L1 and p-ERK1/2 protein expression level by western blot analysis. Results: I identified a change in PD-L1 expression upon artificial stimulation and inhibition of the ERK1/2 pathway in the Caki-1 CCRCC cell line by western blot analysis, although this was not observed in Caki-2 cell line. I also found a positive correlation between p-ERK1/2 expression and PD-L1 expression by immunohistochemical staining of FFPE samples. (Pearson r=0.324, p<0.001) I validated that relationship by western blot analysis of fresh frozen surgical samples. (Pearson r=0.748, p=0.001) Conclusions: In this study, the ERK1/2-PD-L1 pathway was confirmed by in vitro and in vivo assay as a new mechanism of PD-L1 upregulation in CCRCC that has not been known until now. This would contribute to presenting a new mechanism of the pathogenesis of CCRCC by identifying the pathway involved in PD-L1 expression, and the combination of p-ERK1/2 and PD-L1 immunohistochemical staining could be used as a therapeutic response predictor for anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy in the future.์„œ๋ก : Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)๊ณผ ๊ทธ ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ„๋“œ์ธ programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)์˜ ์ƒํ˜ธ์ž‘์šฉ์€ T์„ธํฌ ๊ธฐ๋Šฅ์„ ์–ต์ œํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ์•Œ๋ ค์ ธ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ข…์–‘์„ธํฌ์—์„œ ๊ณผ๋ฐœํ˜„๋œ PD-L1์€ ์ข…์–‘ ์นจ์œค์„ฑ ์„ธํฌ ๋…์„ฑ T์„ธํฌ์˜ PD-1๊ณผ ๊ฒฐํ•ฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์„ธํฌ ๋…์„ฑ T ์„ธํฌ์˜ ํ•ญ์ข…์–‘ ํšจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ์–ต์ œํ•˜๊ณ  ์ข…์–‘์„ธํฌ์˜ ์ƒ์กด์— ์œ ๋ฆฌํ•œ ํ™˜๊ฒฝ์„ ์กฐ์„ฑํ•œ๋‹ค. PD-L1์˜ ๋ฐœํ˜„์— ๊ด€์—ฌํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝ๋กœ๋Š” ์•„์ง ๋ถˆ๋ถ„๋ช…ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ, ์‹ ์„ธํฌ์•”์„ ํฌํ•จํ•œ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์•…์„ฑ ์ข…์–‘์—์„œ PD-1๊ณผ PD-L1์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋ฉด์—ญ์š”๋ฒ•์ด ํšจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ด๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํ•œํŽธ ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ ์ธ ์ข…์–‘ ์„ฑ์žฅ ์ด‰์ง„๋ฌผ์งˆ์ธ ํ‘œํ”ผ ์„ฑ์žฅ ์ธ์ž ์ˆ˜์šฉ์ฒด (EGFR)์˜ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™” ๋ฐ ๊ทธ๋กœ ์ธํ•œ ์„ธํฌ ์™ธ ์‹ ํ˜ธ ์กฐ์ ˆ ์ธ์‚ฐํ™”ํšจ์†Œ (ERK)์˜ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™”๊ฐ€ ๋น„์†Œ์„ธํฌํ์•”์—์„œ PD-L1 ๋ฐœํ˜„ ์ฆ๊ฐ€์™€ ์—ฐ๊ด€๋จ์ด ๋ณด๊ณ ๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ํˆฌ๋ช…์„ธํฌ ์‹ ์„ธํฌ์•” (CCRCC)์—์„œ๋„ EGFR์˜ ๊ณผ๋ฐœํ˜„์ด 50-90%์—์„œ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚จ์ด ์•Œ๋ ค์ ธ ์žˆ๊ณ , ์ธ์‚ฐํ™”๋œ ERK1/2 (p-ERK1/2) ๋ฐ PD-L1 ๋ฐœํ˜„ ์—ญ์‹œ ๊ฐ๊ฐ ์•Œ๋ ค์ ธ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ์ด๋“ค ๋ฌผ์งˆ์ด CCRCC์—์„œ ์–ด๋–ค ๊ธฐ์ „์œผ๋กœ ์ƒํ˜ธ ์ž‘์šฉ์„ ํ•˜๊ณ  ์กฐ์ ˆ๋˜๋Š”์ง€๋Š” ์•Œ๋ ค์ ธ ์žˆ์ง€ ์•Š๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” CCRCC์—์„œ EGFR-ERK1/2๊ฐ€ PD-L1์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ๊ณผ ์กฐ์ ˆ๊ฒฝ๋กœ๋ฅผ ์กฐ์‚ฌํ•˜์—ฌ PD-L1์˜ ๋ฐœํ˜„์ด EGFR๊ณผ ERK1/2์˜ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™”์— ์˜ํ•ด ์œ ๋„๋˜๋Š”์ง€๋ฅผ ๋ฐํžˆ๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•: P-ERK1/2๊ฐ€ ๋งค๊ฐœํ•˜๋Š” PD-L1 ์กฐ์ ˆ์— ๊ด€์—ฌํ•˜๋Š” ์‹ ํ˜ธ ์ „๋‹ฌ ๊ฒฝ๋กœ๋ฅผ ์—ฐ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ์ธ๊ฐ„ CCRCC ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์ธ Caki-1 ๋ฐ Caki-2๋ฅผ ๋Œ€์ƒ์œผ๋กœ ERK1/2 ๊ฒฝ๋กœ์˜ ์ž๊ทน์ œ์ธ ์žฌ์กฐํ•ฉ ์ธ๊ฐ„ ์ƒํ”ผ ์„ธํฌ ์„ฑ์žฅ ์ธ์ž (EGF)์™€ ์–ต์ œ์ œ์ธ U0126์„ ์ฒ˜๋ฆฌํ•œ ํ›„ western blot ๋ถ„์„์„ ์‹œํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ 368๋ก€์˜ CCRCC ์ˆ˜์ˆ ๊ฒ€์ฒด๋ฅผ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ PD-L1, EGFR, p-ERK1/2 ๋ฉด์—ญ ์กฐ์ง ํ™”ํ•™ ์—ผ์ƒ‰์„ ์‹œํ–‰ํ•˜์˜€๊ณ  ๊ฐ๊ฐ์˜ ์—ผ์ƒ‰ ์ •๋„์™€ ์ž„์ƒ ๋ณ‘๋ฆฌํ•™์  ์ธ์ž๋“ค๊ณผ์˜ ์ƒ๊ด€๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ํŒŒ๋ผํ•€ ์ƒ˜ํ”Œ์˜ ๋ฉด์—ญ ์กฐ์ง ํ™”ํ•™ ์—ผ์ƒ‰ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๊ฒ€์ฆํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด 16๊ฐœ์˜ ์‹ ์„  ๋ƒ‰๋™ CCRCC ์ƒ˜ํ”Œ์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ western blot ๋ถ„์„์„ ํ†ตํ•ด PD-L1๊ณผ p-ERK1/2 ๋‹จ๋ฐฑ์งˆ ๋ฐœํ˜„์˜ ์ƒ๊ด€๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ: ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” Caki-1 CCRCC ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ๋ฅผ ๋Œ€์ƒ์œผ๋กœ ERK1/2 ๊ฒฝ๋กœ์˜ ์ž๊ทน ๋ฐ ์–ต์ œ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ PD-L1 ๋ฐœํ˜„์˜ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ western blot ๋ถ„์„์œผ๋กœ ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ด ๋ณ€ํ™”๋Š” Caki-2 ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์—์„œ๋Š” ํ™•์ธ๋˜์ง€ ์•Š์•˜๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ํŒŒ๋ผํ•€ ์ƒ˜ํ”Œ์˜ ๋ฉด์—ญ ์กฐ์ง ํ™”ํ•™ ์—ผ์ƒ‰์„ ํ†ตํ•ด p-ERK1/2 ๋ฐœํ˜„๊ณผ PD-L1 ๋ฐœํ˜„ ์‚ฌ์ด์˜ ์–‘์˜ ์ƒ๊ด€๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ฐœ๊ฒฌํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ (Pearson r=0.324, p<0.001) ์‹ ์„  ๋™๊ฒฐ ์ˆ˜์ˆ  ์กฐ์ง์˜ western blot ๋ถ„์„์œผ๋กœ ๊ทธ ์ƒ๊ด€๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ์žฌํ™•์ธํ–ˆ๋‹ค. (Pearson r=0.748, p=0.001) ๊ฒฐ๋ก : ์ด ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ง€๊ธˆ๊นŒ์ง€ ์•Œ๋ ค์ง€์ง€ ์•Š์•˜๋˜ CCRCC์—์„œ์˜ PD-L1 ๋ฐœํ˜„์˜ ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ๊ธฐ์ „์œผ๋กœ ERK1/2-PD-L1๊ฒฝ๋กœ๋ฅผ ์„ธํฌ์‹คํ—˜ ๋ฐ ์ƒ์ฒด์กฐ์ง ๋ถ„์„์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ํ™•์ธํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ ํ™•์ธํ•œ CCRCC์˜ PD-L1 ๋ฐœํ˜„์— ๊ด€์—ฌํ•˜๋Š” ERK1/2 ๊ฒฝ๋กœ๋Š” ํ–ฅํ›„ CCRCC์˜ ๋ฐœ๋ณ‘ ๊ธฐ์ „์˜ ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ๊ณผ์ •์„ ๋ฐํžˆ๋Š”๋ฐ ์ด์šฉ๋  ๊ฒƒ์ด๋ฉฐ, p-ERK1/2 ๋ฐ PD-L1 ๋ฉด์—ญ ์กฐ์ง ํ™”ํ•™ ์—ผ์ƒ‰ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ์˜ ์กฐํ•ฉ์€ ์ถ”ํ›„ ํ•ญ PD-1/PD-L1 ์น˜๋ฃŒ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋ฐ˜์‘ ์˜ˆ์ธก์— ์ด์šฉ๋  ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค.Abstract i Contents iv List of abbreviations v Introduction 1 Material and Methods 4 Results 8 Discussion 16 References 23 Tables 35 Figures 38 Abstract in Korean 55Docto

    ์ฒ™์ถ”๋™๋ฌผ์•„๋ฌธ ๋‚ด ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๊ณ„ํ†ต ๊ฐ„ ๋Œ€์ง„ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ์ƒ๋ฌผ์ •๋ณดํ•™์  ์ ‘๊ทผ

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ(๋ฐ•์‚ฌ) -- ์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต๋Œ€ํ•™์› : ์ž์—ฐ๊ณผํ•™๋Œ€ํ•™ ํ˜‘๋™๊ณผ์ • ์ƒ๋ฌผ์ •๋ณดํ•™์ „๊ณต, 2022. 8. ๊น€ํฌ๋ฐœ.์ƒ๋ฌผ์ •๋ณดํ•™์€ ๋””์ง€ํ„ธํ™”๋œ ์œ ์ „์„œ์—ด์ •๋ณด๋ฅผ ํ† ๋Œ€๋กœ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์ƒ๋ช…ํ˜„์ƒ์˜ ์›๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•˜๊ณ  ์ด๋ฅผ ํ™œ์šฉํ•ด ์ธ๋ฅ˜์˜ ์‚ถ์˜ ์งˆ์„ ํ–ฅ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ๋ชฉ์ ์œผ๋กœ ํ•  ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ์ƒ๋ฌผ์ •๋ณดํ•™์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๊ฐ ์ข…์„ ๋Œ€ํ‘œํ•˜๋Š” ํ‘œ์ค€์œ ์ „์ฒด ๊ตฌ์ถ•์œผ๋กœ ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ ์œผ๋กœ ์‹œ์ž‘๋˜๊ณ  ๋ฏธ์†Œ ํ˜น์€ ๋Œ€์ง„ํ™”์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํ›„์† ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ์ง„ํ–‰ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋น„๋ก ์งง์€ ๋‹จํŽธ ํ•ด๋… ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์ด ์œ ์ „์ฒด ์‹œ๋Œ€๋ฅผ ์—ด์—ˆ์ง€๋งŒ, ์งง์€ ๋‹จํŽธ์˜ ์กฐ๋ฆฝ์€ ๋‚ฎ์€ ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ์„ฑ์ด๋‚˜ ์˜ค๋ฅ˜๊ฐ€ ํฌํ•จ๋œ ์œ ์ „์ž ์ฃผ์„ ๋“ฑ์˜ ์‹ฌ๊ฐํ•œ ๋ฌธ์ œ๋“ค์„ ๊ฐ€์ง„๋‹ค. ๊ธด ๋‹จํŽธ ํ•ด๋… ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์€ ์—ผ์ƒ‰์ฒด ์ˆ˜์ค€์˜ ์ฃผ์„ (scaffolds)์— ํ•„์ˆ˜์ ์ธ ๋ณด๋‹ค ๊ธด ์ปจํ‹ฐ๊ทธ (contig) ์กฐ๋ฆฝ์„ ์ƒ์‚ฐํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์งง์€ ๋‹จํŽธ์—์„œ ๊ธด ๋‹จํŽธ์œผ๋กœ ๋ณ€ํ™”ํ•˜๋Š” ํŽ˜๋Ÿฌ๋‹ค์ž„์— ๋ฐœ ๋งž์ถ”์–ด, ๋ณธ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์€ ํ‘œ์ค€์œ ์ „์ฒด ๊ตฌ์ถ•์—์„œ ๋น„๊ต์œ ์ „์ฒด ๋ถ„์„๊นŒ์ง€ ์ด์–ด์ง€๋Š” ์ผ๋ จ์˜ ์ƒ๋ฌผ์ •๋ณดํ•™์  ๋ถ„์„์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ง‘์•ฝ์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ–ˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋Š” ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์ฒ™์ถ”๋™๋ฌผ ์ข…๋“ค์˜ ๋Œ€์ง„ํ™”๋ฅผ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด ๋ชฉ์ ์ด๋‹ค. ์ œ 1์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์˜ ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ ์ธ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ์ง€์‹์„ ์ •๋ฆฌํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ฒซ์งธ๋กœ, ์—ผ์ƒ‰์ฒด ์ˆ˜์ค€์˜ ์ฃผ์„์„ ๋‹ฌ์„ฑํ•œ ํ‘œ์ค€์œ ์ „์ฒด ๊ตฌ์ถ•์˜ ํŽ˜๋Ÿฌ๋‹ค์ž„ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์„ค๋ช…ํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ๋‹ค์Œ์œผ๋กœ, ํŠน์ด์  ํ˜•์งˆ์— ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ ๋ถ„์ž ์ง„ํ™”๋ฅผ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•˜๋Š” ๋น„๊ต์œ ์ „์ฒด ๋ถ„์„ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ• ๋ฐ ์‚ฌ๋ก€๋ฅผ ์ •๋ฆฌํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ œ 2์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ํ‘œ์ค€์œ ์ „์ฒด๋ฅผ ๊ตฌ์ถ•ํ•œ ์‚ฌ๋ก€๋กœ์„œ, ๋Œ€ํ•œ๋ฏผ๊ตญ์˜ ๊ณ ์œ ์ข…์ธ ํฐ๋ณ๋ง๋š๋ง๋‘ฅ์–ด์˜ ์—ผ์ƒ‰์ฒด ์ˆ˜์ค€ ํ‘œ์ค€์œ ์ „์ฒด๋ฅผ ๊ตฌ์ถ•ํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ฒ™์ถ”๋™๋ฌผ ์œ ์ „์ฒด ํ”„๋กœ์ ํŠธ์™€ ๊ตญ์ œ ํ˜‘๋ ฅ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด 4๊ฐ€์ง€ ์ตœ์‹  ์œ ์ „์ฒด ํ•ด๋…๊ธฐ์ˆ ๋“ค (Pacbio CLR, 10X Genomics linked reads, Bionano optical mapping, ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  Arima Genomics Hi-C)์„ ํ™œ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ, ๊ธฐ์กด ํ‘œ์ค€์œ ์ „์ฒด์™€ ๋น„๊ตํ•ด ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ์„ฑ (continuity, Scaffold N50 ๊ธฐ์ค€)์ด ์•ฝ 100๋ฐฐ ํ–ฅ์ƒ๋˜๊ณ  ์ด 25๊ฐœ์˜ ์—ผ์ƒ‰์ฒด๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง„ ๊ณ ํ’ˆ์งˆ ํ‘œ์ค€์œ ์ „์ฒด๋ฅผ ์™„์„ฑํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, Pacbio Isoseq์ „์‚ฌ์ฒด ๋ฐ์ดํ„ฐ๋ฅผ ์œ ์ „์ž ์ฃผ์„์— ํ™œ์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์ด 24,744๊ฐœ์˜ ์œ ์ „์ž๋ฅผ ๋ฐœ๊ตดํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ œ 3์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ํ‘œ์ค€์œ ์ „์ฒด ํ’ˆ์งˆ ํ‰๊ฐ€ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•๊ณผ ๋น„๊ต์œ ์ „์ฒดํ•™์  ๋ถ„์„์„ ์ ‘๋ชฉํ•œ ์‚ฌ๋ก€๋กœ์„œ, ๋ถ„ํ™” ์‹œ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์˜ค๋ž˜๋œ ์ข… ๊ฐ„์—๋„ BUSCO ์œ ์ „์ž๋ฅผ ํ™œ์šฉํ•ด ์—ผ์ƒ‰์ฒด ์ˆ˜์ค€์˜ ์ง„ํ™” ์–‘์ƒ์„ ํƒ์ƒ‰ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•๊ณผ ์ฒ™์ถ”๋™๋ฌผ ๋‚ด์—์„œ ์‚ฌ๋ก€๋ฅผ ์ œ์‹œํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, ํฌ์œ ๋ฅ˜, ์กฐ๋ฅ˜, ์–ด๋ฅ˜ ๋“ฑ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์ฒ™์ถ”๋™๋ฌผ์˜ ํ‘œ์ค€์œ ์ „์ฒด์—์„œ ํ›„์† ๋ถ„์„ ์ƒ์˜ ๋ฌธ์ œ๋ฅผ ์•ผ๊ธฐํ•˜๋Š” ํ—ˆ์œ„ ์†Œ์‹ค ๋ฐ ์ค‘๋ณต ์˜ค๋ฅ˜๋ฅผ ํƒ์ƒ‰ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ•๊ณผ ์‚ฌ๋ก€๋ฅผ ์ œ์‹œํ•˜๊ณ  ๋ฐœ์ƒ์›์ธ์„ ๋ฐํ˜”๋‹ค. ์ œ 4์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ๋น„๊ต์œ ์ „์ฒดํ•™์  ๋ถ„์„์„ ์ ์šฉํ•œ ์‚ฌ๋ก€๋กœ์„œ, ์‹ค๋Ÿฌ์บ”์Šค๋ฅผ ํฌํ•จํ•˜๋Š” ์œก๊ธฐ์•„๊ฐ• ๋‹จ๊ณ„ํ†ต ํŒŒ์ƒ์  ์ง„ํ™”์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋ถ„์„์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์œก์ƒ ์ ์‘ ๋ฐ ์‚ฌ์ง€ ์ถœํ˜„์˜ ๋ถ„์ž ๊ธฐ์ž‘์„ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ œ 5์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ๋น„๊ต์œ ์ „์ฒดํ•™์  ๋ถ„์„์„ ์ ์šฉํ•œ ์‚ฌ๋ก€๋กœ์„œ, ๋ฐœ์„ฑํ•™์Šต ์กฐ๋ฅ˜ ๋ฐ ๋Œ€์กฐ๊ตฐ ๊ฐ๊ฐ์˜ ๋‹ค๊ณ„ํ†ต ์ˆ˜๋ ด ์ง„ํ™”์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋ถ„์„์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ ์ˆ˜๋ ด์˜ ์ง„ํ™”์  ๋ฒ•์น™์„ ์ œ์•ˆํ•˜๊ณ  ๋ฐœ์„ฑ ํ•™์Šต์— ์—ฐ๊ด€๋œ ํ›„๋ณด ์œ ์ „์ž๋ฅผ ๋ฐœ๊ตดํ–ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ํ‘œ์ค€์œ ์ „์ฒด ๊ตฌ์ถ•์—์„œ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ๋น„๊ต์œ ์ „์ฒด ๋ถ„์„์œผ๋กœ ์ด์–ด์ง€๋Š” ์ƒ๋ฌผ์ •๋ณดํ•™์  ์ ‘๊ทผ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๊ทœ๋ช…๋œ ์ฃผ์š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ ์ค‘์—, ์—ผ์ƒ‰์ฒด ์ƒ ํ…”๋กœ๋ฏธ์–ด ์„œ์—ด ๋ถ„ํฌ ๋ฐ ์•„๋ฏธ๋…ธ์‚ฐ ์ˆ˜๋ ด ์ง„ํ™”์˜ ์›๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ฒ™์ถ”๋™๋ฌผ ์™ธ์— ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ๋ถ„๋ฅ˜ ๊ตฐ์—์„œ๋„ ๋น„๊ต๋  ๊ธฐ์ค€์ด ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์„ ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๊ธฐ๋Œ€๋œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, ์‚ฌ์ง€ ๋ฐœ๋‹ฌ ๋ฐ ๋ฐœ์„ฑ ํ•™์Šต์— ์—ฐ๊ด€๋œ ํ›„๋ณด ์œ ์ „์ž๋ฅผ ๋ฐœ๊ตดํ•œ ๋น„๊ต์œ ์ „์ฒดํ•™์  ์ ‘๊ทผ๋ฒ•์€ ์ „ ์„ธ๊ณ„ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์ƒ๋ฌผ๋“ค์˜ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์œ ์šฉ ํ˜•์งˆ์— ์—ฐ๊ด€๋œ ์œ ์šฉ ์œ ์ „์ž๋ฅผ ๋ฐœ๊ตดํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ ํ™œ์šฉ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์„ ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค.Bioinformatics aims to improve the quality of life of mankind by decoding molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena based on digitalized sequence information of various species. It generally begins with a construction of reference genomes representing each species and moves on downstream analyses for microevolution within species and macroevolutions between species. Although short-read sequencing technologies initiated genomics era, the short read assemblies had critical problems for lower continuity and erroneous gene annotations causing mis-interpretations. Long read sequencing technologies improved assembly continuities fundamental to chromosome-level scaffolds and corrected false annotations. Following up the paradigm shift from short-reads to long-reads, here, I performed a series of bioinformatic analyses to understand macroevolutions of various vertebrate species from reference genome construction to comparative genome approaches. Chapter 1 summarized the general background of this dissertation. First, it described the paradigm shift of the reference genome constructions achieving chromosome-scale scaffolds. Next, comparative genomic approaches for specific traits were summarized. Chapter 2, as a case of constructing a reference genome, illuminated a chromosome-level reference genome of giant-fin mudskipper, an endemic species in republic of Korea. Based on the four latest genome sequencing technologies (Pacbio CLR, 10X Genomics linked reads, Bionano optical mapping, and Arima Genomics Hi-C) in the international cooperation with the Vertebrate genomes project, it improved the 100-fold longer continuity (Scaffold N50) with a total of 25 chromosomal-level scaffolds compared to that of the previous genome. In addition, a total of 24,744 genes were annotated with Pacbio Isoseq transcriptome data. In Chapter 3, as a case of combining the reference genome quality evaluation method and comparative genomic analyses, a method was developed to explore the chromosomal evolution between vertebrate species in distant lineages focusing on the BUSCO genes. In addition, it suggested methods for detecting false loss and duplication errors that cause problems in downstream analyses in reference genomes of various vertebrate lineages, such as, mammals, birds, and fishes, and revealed how those kinds of errors occurred. In Chapter 4, as a case using the existing comparative genomic approaches, the molecular mechanisms of terrestrial adaptation and limb emergence were identified by applying the series of analyses for apormorphic evolution of the monophyletic lineage of lobed-fin fishes including coelacanths and human. In Chapter 5, as a case developing a new comparative genomic approach, the rule of amino acid convergence was proposed and candidate genes related to vocal learning were discovered through the multi-omic analyses for convergent evolution between polyphyletic lineages of vocal learning bird and control groups. Among the major findings of this study based on the bioinformatics approaches from the reference genome construction to comparative genomic researches, telomere sequence distributions on chromosomes and the principles of amino acid convergence would be a standard for comparisons in various lineages. In addition, the systemized comparative genomic approaches that identified candidate genes involved in limb development and vocal learning may be utilized to discover new candidate genes associated with various useful traits of living things in the world.Chapter 1. LITERATURE REVIEW 1 1.1 Paradigm shift in reference genome constructions 2 1.2 Comparative genomics for specific traits 3 Chapter 2. CHROMOSOME-LEVEL GENOME ASSEMBLY OF PERIOPHTHALMUS MAGNUSPINNATUS: AN INDIGENOUS MUDSKIPPER IN THE YELLOW SEA 5 2.1 Abstract 6 2.2 Introduction 7 2.3 Materials and Methods 9 2.4 Results and Discussion 13 Chapter 3. COMPARATIVE GENOMIC APPROACHES TO DETECT ERRONEOUS GENES IN REFERENCE GENOMES AND TO VISUALIZE CHROMOSOME EVOLUTION ACROSS VERTEBRATES 24 3.1 Abstract 25 3.2 Introduction 26 3.3 Materials and Methods 28 3.4 Results and Discussion 32 Chapter 4. COELACANTH-SPECIFIC ADAPTIVE GENES GIVE INSIGHTS INTO PRIMITIVE EVOLUTION FOR WATER-TO-LAND TRANSITION OF TETRAPODS 59 4.1 Abstract 60 4.2 Introduction 61 4.3 Materials and Methods 63 4.4 Results 69 4.5 Discussion 79 Chapter 5. AMINO ACID CONVERGENCES BETWEEN INDEPENDENT LINEAGES IN BIRDS GIVE EVOLUTIONARY INSIGHTS INTO AVIAN VOCAL LEARNING 85 5.1 Abstract 86 5.2 Introduction 87 5.3 Materials and Methods 89 5.4 Results 98 5.5 Discussion 159 GENERAL DISCUSSUSION 167 REFERENCES 168 ์š”์•ฝ(๊ตญ๋ฌธ์ดˆ๋ก) 176๋ฐ•

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ (๋ฐ•์‚ฌ)-- ์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต ๋Œ€ํ•™์› ๊ณต๊ณผ๋Œ€ํ•™ ํ˜‘๋™๊ณผ์ • ๊ธฐ์ˆ ๊ฒฝ์˜ยท๊ฒฝ์ œยท์ •์ฑ…์ „๊ณต, 2017. 8. ๊ฐ•์ง„์•„.์ตœ๊ทผ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ๋ฐœ๋‹ฌ์ด ์ ์  ๊ณ ๋„ํ™”๋˜๊ณ  ๊ธฐ์ˆ  ์ˆ˜๋ช…์ฃผ๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์ ์  ๋‹จ์ถ•๋˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ๊ธฐ์ˆ  ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์— ์žˆ์–ด ๋งŽ์€ ๋น„์šฉ์ด ์š”๊ตฌ๋˜๊ณ  ์žˆ์Œ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ , ์„ฑ๊ณต์ ์ธ ๊ธฐ์ˆ  ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์˜ ๋ถˆํ™•์‹ค์„ฑ๋„ ๋†’์•„์ ธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ๋Š” ํˆฌ์ž ๋Œ€๋น„ ์œ„ํ—˜์„ฑ๋„ ํ•จ๊ป˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์‹ฌํ™”๋˜๋Š” ์กฐ์ง ๊ฐ„์˜ ๊ฒฝ์Ÿ์€ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ์ƒ์—…์ ์ธ ์„ฑ๊ณต ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ๋„ ๋‚ฎ์ถ”๋Š” ์š”์ธ์œผ๋กœ ์ž‘์šฉํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด์— ๊ธฐ์—…๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ๋Š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์—์„œ์˜ ์œ„ํ—˜์„ ํšŒํ”ผํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ์ฃผ๋กœ ํ™œ์šฉ(exploitation)์  ํ˜์‹  ํ™œ๋™์— ์ง‘์ค‘ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ํ™œ์šฉ์  ํ˜์‹ ์€ ๋‹จ๊ธฐ์ ์ธ ์„ฑ๊ณผ์™€ ์ ์ง„์ ์ธ ๊ฐœ์„ ์—๋งŒ ์ง‘์ค‘ํ•˜๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์—, ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ๋‹จ์ ˆ์  ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ์žฆ์€ ํ˜„ ๊ฒฝ์Ÿ ํ™˜๊ฒฝ์—์„œ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ๊ฒฝ์Ÿ ์šฐ์œ„๋ฅผ ์œ ์ง€ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์–ด๋ ต๊ฒŒ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด์— ์ตœ๊ทผ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์กฐ์ง์˜ ์žฅ๊ธฐ์ ์ธ ์ƒ์กด์„ ์œ„ํ•ด ๋Š์ž„์—†์ด ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ์ง€์‹์„ ํƒ์ƒ‰(exploration)ํ•˜์—ฌ ํŒจ๋Ÿฌ๋‹ค์ž„์„ ๋ณ€ํ™”์‹œํ‚ฌ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ํ˜์‹ ์„ ์ถ”๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ  ์ด๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ํ™œ๋™์˜ ๋น„์ค‘์„ ๋Š˜๋ ค์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค๊ณ  ๊ฐ•์กฐํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ํ˜์‹  ํ™œ๋™์˜ ์ค‘์š”์„ฑ์ด ์ ์  ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•จ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ, ์ƒˆ๋กœ์šด ๊ธฐ์ˆ  ๋ถ„์•ผ ๋ฐ ์ง€์‹์„ ๋ชฉ์ ์œผ๋กœ ํ•œ ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์ด ๊ธฐ์ˆ  ํ˜์‹ ์— ๊ธ์ •์ ์ธ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ค€๋‹ค๋Š” ์ƒ๋‹น์ˆ˜์˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค์ด ์ˆ˜ํ–‰๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ ์ค‘์—์„œ๋„ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์ด ๋ณต์žกํ•ด์ง€๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š” ์˜ค๋Š˜๋‚ ์˜ ํ™˜๊ฒฝ์„ ๊ฐ์•ˆํ•˜์—ฌ, ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํƒ์ƒ‰์„ ๋„˜์–ด ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์˜ ์›๋ฆฌ์  ์ดํ•ด๋ฅผ ๋„์šธ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํƒ์ƒ‰์„ ๊ฐ•์กฐํ•˜๋Š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค์ด ์ตœ๊ทผ ์ฃผ๋ชฉ๋ฐ›๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์กฐ์ง์ด ์„ฑ๊ณต์ ์ธ ํ˜์‹ ์„ ๋‹ฌ์„ฑํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ๊ธฐ์ˆ ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์ด ์‘์šฉ ์ง€์‹์˜ ํ™œ์šฉ์ด๋ผ๋Š” ๊ฒฝ๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ฒ—์–ด๋‚˜, ํ˜„์ƒ๊ณผ ์ž‘๋™์˜ ์›๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์ดํ•ดํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ทผ๋ณธ์ ์ธ ์•„์ด๋””์–ด๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ์ถœ๋ฐœํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ๋” ๋‚˜์•„๊ฐ€ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹์€ ํ˜์‹ ์˜ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฌผ์„ ๋ฏธ๋ฆฌ ์˜ˆ์ƒํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ฒŒ ํ•˜์—ฌ, ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ๋ถˆํ™•์‹ค์„ฑ์„ ๋‚ฎ์ถ”๊ณ  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ๊ณผ์ •์—์„œ ๋ฐœ์ƒ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์‹œํ–‰์ฐฉ์˜ค๋ฅผ ์ค„์ผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ฒŒ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด์— ๊ธฐ์—…๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ์กฐ์ง์€ ๋Œ€ํ•™ ๋ฐ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์†Œ๋“ค ๊ณผ์˜ ํ˜‘๋ ฅ์„ ๊ฐ•ํ™”ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ ๊ทน์ ์œผ๋กœ ์‚ฐ์—… ํ˜์‹ ์— ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹์ด ์ ‘๋ชฉ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋„๋ก ์‹œ๋„ํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์–ธ๊ธ‰ํ•œ ๋ฐ”์™€ ๊ฐ™์ด ํ•™๊ณ„์™€ ์‹ค๋ฌด์—์„œ ๋ชจ๋‘ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ์œตํ•ฉ์— ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ํ•œ ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์˜ ์ค‘์š”์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐ•์กฐํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿผ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ  ๊ณผํ•™๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ์œตํ•ฉ์— ์ดˆ์ ์„ ๋งž์ถ˜ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ํ™œ๋™๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ์•„์ง ๋ถ€์กฑํ•œ ์‹ค์ •์ด๋‹ค. ๋จผ์ € ์ง€์‹์˜ ๊ด€์ ์—์„œ, ๊ณผํ•™๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ˆ  ์ง€์‹์˜ ์œตํ•ฉ์ด ํ˜์‹ ์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ํšจ๊ณผ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ์•„์ง ๋ช…ํ™•ํžˆ ๋ฐํ˜€์ง€์ง€ ์•Š์•˜๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์กฐ์ง ํ–‰๋™์˜ ์ธก๋ฉด์—์„œ, ์กฐ์ง์ด ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์„ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ์ „๋žต์„ ์ˆ˜๋ฆฝํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์กฐ์ง ๋‚ด๋ถ€์ ์ธ ์š”์ธ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ดํ•ด๊ฐ€ ๋ถ€์กฑํ•˜๋‹ค. ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰์œผ๋กœ ์™ธ๋ถ€ ์กฐ์ง๊ณผ์˜ ํ˜‘๋ ฅ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์„ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ์—๋„, ํ˜‘๋ ฅ์— ์˜ํ•œ ํ˜์‹  ์„ฑ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ์ฆ์ง„์‹œํ‚ค๋Š” ์š”์ธ๋“ค์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ดํ•ด๊ฐ€ ํ•„์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค. ์ด์— ๋ณธ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์—์„œ๋Š” ์กฐ์ง์˜ ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ํ™œ๋™๊ณผ ํ˜์‹  ์„ฑ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๊ฒฐ์ •ํ•˜๋Š” ์š”์†Œ๋“ค์„ ๋ฐํ˜€๋‚ด๊ณ  ๊ทธ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๊ตฌ์ฒด์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ง€์‹ ์ธก๋ฉด, ์กฐ์ง ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ์ธก๋ฉด, ์กฐ์ง ์™ธ๋ถ€ ์ธก๋ฉด ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ์„ธ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ๊ด€์ ์—์„œ ๋ถ„์„ํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ ํ†ตํ•ฉ์ ์ธ ์‹œ๊ฐ์„ ์ œ๊ณตํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์šฐ์„  ์ง€์‹์˜ ์ˆ˜์ค€์—์„œ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ์œตํ•ฉ ํšจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๊ฒ€์ฆํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ, ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์ด ์‹ค์งˆ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ํ˜์‹  ์„ฑ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ํ–ฅ์ƒ์‹œํ‚จ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์„ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ ๋‹ค์Œ์œผ๋กœ ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ํ™œ๋™์„ ํ™•๋Œ€ํ•˜๋Š” ์ „๋žต ์ˆ˜๋ฆฝ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์š”์ธ์œผ๋กœ, ์กฐ์ง ๋‚ด๋ถ€์˜ ์ตœ๊ณ  ๊ฒฝ์˜์ง„์— ์˜ํ•œ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ œ์‹œํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰์œผ๋กœ ๊ธฐ์—…์ด ์™ธ๋ถ€ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹์„ ๋„์ž…ํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ๋Œ€ํ•™ ๋ฐ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์†Œ์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์™ธ๋ถ€ ์กฐ์ง๊ณผ์˜ ํ˜‘๋ ฅ์„ ํ•  ๋•Œ ๊ณ ๋ คํ•ด์•ผ ํ•˜๋Š” ์š”์†Œ๋“ค์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๊ตฌ์ฒด์ ์œผ๋กœ, 3์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ง€์‹ ๊ด€์ ์—์„œ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ์œตํ•ฉ์˜ ํšจ๊ณผ๊ฐ€ ํ˜์‹ ์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด์„œ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹์€ ํ˜„์ƒ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋‹จํŽธ์ ์ธ ์‹œ๊ฐ์„ ๋ฒ—์–ด๋‚˜๊ฒŒ ํ•  ๋ฟ๋งŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ ๋ณด๋‹ค ๊ทผ๋ณธ์ ์ธ ํ˜์‹ ์˜ ์›๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๊ฒŒ ํ•˜์—ฌ, ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์  ๋ฌธ์ œ ํ•ด๊ฒฐ์— ์žˆ์–ด ์ตœ์ ์— ๊ฐ€๊นŒ์šด ํ•ด๋‹ต์„ ๋„์ถœํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ•˜๊ฒŒ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด์— ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ๊ธฐ์ˆ  ํ˜์‹ ์„ ์ง€์‹์˜ ๋‹จ์œ„์—์„œ ํŒŒ์•…ํ•˜์—ฌ, ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹์˜ ์‚ฌ์šฉ ๋น„์œจ ๋ฐ ํ•ด๋‹น ํ˜์‹ ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ๋ ฅ๊ณผ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ํŒŒ์•…ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ทธ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ๋ฐ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ์œตํ•ฉ๊ณผ ํ˜์‹ ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ๋ ฅ์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋Š” ์–‘์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ด๋‹ค ์ ์  ์ฒด๊ฐํ•˜๋Š” ์—ญ-U (inverted-U) ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๊ฐ–๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฌ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ๊ณผํ•™ ์—ญ๋Ÿ‰, ์ง€์—ญ์—์„œ์˜ ์ง€์‹ ํ™•์‚ฐ ๋ฐ ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹์˜ ์„ฑ์ˆ™๋„๊ฐ€ ์œตํ•ฉ๊ณผ ํ˜์‹ ์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„์— ์–‘์˜ ์กฐ์ ˆ ํšจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ด ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋Š” ๊ณผํ•™๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ์œตํ•ฉ์˜ ์ค‘์š”์„ฑ์„ ์‹ค์ฆ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•˜์˜€์„ ๋ฟ๋งŒ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ผ, ์œตํ•ฉ์˜ ์„ฑ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ์ฆ์ง„์‹œํ‚ฌ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์š”์ธ์„ ๋ฐํž˜์œผ๋กœ์จ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ์ „๋žต์˜ ํ† ๋Œ€๋ฅผ ์ œ์‹œํ•œ๋‹ค. 4์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ์กฐ์ง์˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ํ™œ๋™๊ณผ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ์ตœ๊ณ  ๊ฒฝ์˜์ง„์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ์‚ดํŽด๋ณด์•˜๋‹ค. ์กฐ์ง ํ–‰๋™์€ ์ตœ๊ณ  ๊ฒฝ์˜์ง„์˜ ํŠน์„ฑ ๋ฐ ์ธ์‹ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฐ›๋Š”๋‹ค๋Š” ์ƒ์ธต๋ถ€ ์ด๋ก  (upper-echelon) ๊ด€์ ์„ ๋„์ž…ํ•˜์—ฌ, ์กฐ์ง์˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ํ™œ๋™๊ณผ ์ตœ๊ณ  ๊ฒฝ์˜์ง„์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ตœ๊ณ  ๊ฒฝ์˜์ง„ ๊ฐœ์ธ์ด ๊ณผ๊ฑฐ์— ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ๊ด€๋ จ ์ง๋ฌด ๊ฒฝํ—˜์ด ์žˆ๊ฑฐ๋‚˜, ์ดํ•™ ๋ฐ ๊ณตํ•™์˜ ๊ต์œก์„ ๋ฐ›์€ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ํ˜์‹ ์„ ์ถ”๊ตฌํ•˜๋Š” ์ธ์‹ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์ด ํ˜•์„ฑ๋˜์–ด ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ์กฐ์ง ํ–‰๋™์—๋„ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ฃผ๊ฒŒ ๋œ๋‹ค. ์‹ค์ฆ๋ถ„์„์„ ํ†ตํ•ด, ์ตœ๊ณ  ๊ฒฝ์˜์ง„์— ํ˜์‹  ๊ฒฝํ—˜์ด ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ตฌ์„ฑ์› ๋น„์œจ์ด ๋†’์„์ˆ˜๋ก ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ๋Š” ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ํ™œ๋™์˜ ๋น„์ค‘์ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฌ๋‹ค. ๋” ๋‚˜์•„๊ฐ€ ํ˜์‹ ์˜ ๊ฒฝํ—˜์„ ์ง€๋‹Œ ๊ฐœ์ธ์ด ์ตœ๊ณ  ๊ฒฝ์˜์ง„์œผ๋กœ์จ์˜ ์žฌ์ž„ ๊ธฐ๊ฐ„์ด ๊ธธ์ˆ˜๋ก ํ•ด๋‹น ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ๋Š” ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ํ™œ๋™์ด ๋” ํ™•๋Œ€๋˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋ถ„์„๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์œ„์˜ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๊ณผํ•™ ๋ฐ ๊ธฐ์ˆ  ์ง€์‹์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ํ™œ๋™์„ ์ ๊ทน์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ์กฐ์ง ๋‚ด๋ถ€์˜ ์˜์‚ฌ ๊ฒฐ์ •๊ถŒ์ž๋“ค์˜ ํ˜์‹ ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์˜์ง€์™€ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ์ง€์†์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋’ท๋ฐ›์นจ์ด ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์œ ์ถ”ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ํ™œ๋™์— ์˜ํ•œ ํ˜์‹  ์„ฑ๊ณผ๋Š” ์˜ค๋žœ ๊ธฐ๊ฐ„์— ๊ฑธ์ณ ๋ฐœ์ƒํ•˜๊ณ , ํŠนํžˆ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹์„ ์ ‘๋ชฉํ•œ ํƒ์ƒ‰ ํ™œ๋™์€ ์†Œ๋ชจ๋˜๋Š” ๋น„์šฉ์ด ๋†’์•„ ์ผ์‹œ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ์žฌ๋ฌด ์ƒํ™ฉ์ด ์•…ํ™”๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿผ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ  ํ˜์‹ ์„ ์ถ”๊ตฌํ•˜๋Š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ๋Š” ์žฌ๋ฌด, ํšŒ๊ณ„, ๋ฒ•, ๊ฒฝ์˜๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ ์ „ํ†ต์ ์ธ ์ตœ๊ณ  ๊ฒฝ์˜์ง„์˜ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ์„ ๋ฒ—์–ด๋‚˜ ์ด๊ณต๊ณ„ ์ถœ์‹  ๋ฐ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์˜ ๊ฒฝํ—˜์ด ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์˜์ง„์˜ ๋น„์œจ์„ ํ™•๋Œ€ํ•ด์•ผ ํ•  ํ•„์š”์„ฑ์„ ์ œ์–ธํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰ 5์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ์™ธ๋ถ€ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ์ œํœด(alliance)์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด์„œ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ธฐ์—…๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์ด ์ฃผ๋กœ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์— ์ง‘์ค‘๋œ ์‚ฐ์—… ํ˜์‹ ์„ ์ถ”๊ตฌํ•˜๋Š” ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ๋Š” ์™ธ๋ถ€์˜ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ธฐ๊ด€๊ณผ ์ œํœด๋ฅผ ๋งบ์–ด ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹์„ ์ด์ „ ๋ฐ›๊ณ ์ž ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด ๋•Œ ์ œํœด ํŒŒํŠธ๋„ˆ ์„ ํƒ์— ์žˆ์–ด ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์„ ์œ„์ฃผ๋กœ ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ธฐ์—…์€ ๊ณผํ•™๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์ด ์ƒ์ดํ•œ ์ง€์‹์„ ๋‹ค๋ฃจ๋Š” ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ •๋ณด ๊ฒฉ์ฐจ๋กœ ์ธํ•˜์—ฌ ์ ์ ˆํ•œ ์ œํœด ํŒŒํŠธ๋„ˆ ์„ ์ •์— ์–ด๋ ค์›€์„ ๊ฒช์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด์— ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ง€์‹ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ ๊ด€์ ์—์„œ ๋‘ ์ƒ์ดํ•œ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ์ง€์‹์ ์ธ ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ œํœด ํ›„ ์„ฑ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ํ–ฅ์ƒ์‹œํ‚ค๋Š” ์š”์†Œ๋ฅผ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋ถ„์„ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, ์ œํœด ํŒŒํŠธ๋„ˆ์ธ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ๊ธฐ๊ด€์˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ์—ญ๋Ÿ‰, ์ง€์‹ ๋‹ค์–‘์„ฑ ๋ฐ ์ œํœด ๊ธฐ์—…๊ณผ์˜ ์ง€์‹ ์œ ์‚ฌ์„ฑ์ด ์ œํœด ํ›„ ํ˜์‹  ์„ฑ๊ณผ์— ๊ธ์ •์ ์ธ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฌ๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ ์ œํœด ๊ธฐ์—…์ด ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™์˜ ์—ญ๋Ÿ‰์˜ ์ˆ˜์ค€์€ ์œ„์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„์— ์–‘์˜ ์กฐ์ ˆ ํšจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ์ค€๋‹ค๊ณ  ๋ถ„์„๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด, ๊ธฐ์—…์˜ ์ž…์žฅ์—์„œ ์ž ์žฌ์ ์ธ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ํŒŒํŠธ๋„ˆ๋ฅผ ํƒ์ƒ‰ํ•  ๋•Œ ๊ณ ๋ คํ•ด์•ผ ํ•  ์š”์†Œ๋ฅผ ์ œ์‹œํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋” ๋‚˜์•„๊ฐ€ ์‚ฐํ•™์—ฐ์˜ ํ˜‘๋ ฅ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์ด ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ง€์‹์˜ ํ™•์‚ฐ์„ ๋ชฉ์ ์œผ๋กœ ํ•˜๋Š” ์ œํœด์—์„œ, ๊ธฐ์—…๊ณผ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ธฐ๊ด€๊ณผ์˜ ์ƒํ˜ธ ์ง€์‹์  ํŠน์„ฑ์ด ์ œํœด ํ›„ ์„ฑ๊ณผ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ค€๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์„ ์‹œ์‚ฌํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ ๋…ผ๋ฌธ์˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋Š” ๋‹ค์Œ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ์˜์˜๋ฅผ ์ œ์‹œํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ฒซ์งธ, ๊ธฐ์กด ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ ๊ณผํ•™ ๋ฐ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์„ ๊ฐ๊ฐ ๋ถ„์„ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์„ ํ™•์žฅํ•˜์—ฌ, ์œตํ•ฉ์˜ ๊ด€์ ์—์„œ ๊ณผํ•™๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์„ ๋™์‹œ์— ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ธฐ์ˆ  ํ˜์‹ ์˜ ์˜ํ–ฅ๋ ฅ์„ ๋†’์ด๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ ๋‹จ๊ณ„์—์„œ ์ ์ • ์ˆ˜์ค€์˜ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹์„ ์ ์šฉํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ์ „๋žต ์ˆ˜๋ฆฝ์˜ ๊ทผ๊ฑฐ๋ฅผ ์ œ์‹œํ•œ๋‹ค. ํ•œ์ •๋œ ์ž์›์œผ๋กœ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์„ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰ํ•˜๋Š” ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ๋Š” ๊ณผํ•™๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ์œตํ•ฉ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฐœ๋ฐœ์˜ ํšจ์œจ์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐœ์„ ํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ถ๊ทน์ ์œผ๋กœ๋Š” ํ˜์‹ ์˜ ์งˆ์„ ๋†’์ผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ฒŒ ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋‘˜์งธ, ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์ˆ˜์ค€์—์„œ ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ํ˜์‹  ํ™œ๋™์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์ง€์‹ ์ธก๋ฉด, ์กฐ์ง ๋‚ด๋ถ€ ์ธก๋ฉด ๋ฐ ์กฐ์ง ์™ธ๋ถ€ ์ธก๋ฉด์˜ 3๊ฐ€์ง€ ์ธก๋ฉด์—์„œ ๋ถ„์„์„ ์‹ค์‹œํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ, ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ํ˜์‹  ํ™œ๋™์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํ†ตํ•ฉ์ ์ธ ์ดํ•ด๋ฅผ ๋†’์˜€๋‹ค. ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰์œผ๋กœ, ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ํ˜์‹  ์„ฑ๊ณผ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์š”์†Œ๋“ค์„ ๊ฒ€์ฆํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™ ์ง€์‹ ์ด์ „์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์š”์†Œ๋ฅผ ์ง€์‹๊ณผ ์กฐ์ง์˜ ํŠน์„ฑ์œผ๋กœ ๊ตฌ๋ถ„ํ•˜์—ฌ ๋‹ค๊ฐ๋„๋กœ ์ œ์‹œํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ํ˜์‹  ์ „๋žต ์ˆ˜๋ฆฝ์— ์žˆ์–ด ํ•„์š”ํ•œ ํŒ๋‹จ ๊ธฐ์ค€์„ ์ œ๊ณตํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ข…ํ•ฉํ•˜์ž๋ฉด ํ˜์‹ ์„ ์ด๋ฃจ๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์ง€์‹์˜ ์ ์šฉ์ด ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ์ƒํ™ฉ์—์„œ, ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋Š” ๊ณผํ•™๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์˜ ์œตํ•ฉ์„ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ๋กœ ํ•˜๋Š” ํ˜์‹ ์˜ ์ค‘์š”์„ฑ์„ ๊ฐ•์กฐํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋™์‹œ์— ๊ธฐ์ดˆ ๊ณผํ•™์— ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜ํ•œ ํƒ์ƒ‰์  ํ˜์‹  ํ™œ๋™์˜ ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ํ•„์š”ํ•œ ์š”์†Œ๋ฅผ ๊ทœ๋ช… ๋ฐ ์ œ์‹œํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค.Recently, the development of technology has become more advanced while the life cycle of technology has been shortened. Despite the considerable resources invested in accomplishing innovation, the uncertainty of the research and development (R&D) process as well as the risks inherent in investments into R&D are increasing. Hence, intensified competition lowers the possibility of commercially successful R&D outputs. Therefore, organizations such as industrial firms tend to focus on exploitative innovation activities to avoid the inherent risks of R&D. However, the outcomes of exploitative innovation focus only on short-term performance and incremental improvement, which makes it difficult to maintain a competitive advantage in competitive environments, where discontinuous changes in technology are frequent. Therefore, recent literature emphasizes the importance of explorative innovation that allows to change paradigms by exploring new knowledge in various fields for the organizations long-term survival. Also, it also elucidates the importance of increasing the proportion of explorative R&D among organizations R&D activities. As the importance of explorative R&D activities increases, several studies have been conducted that explorative R&D, aiming at new technology development and knowledge acquisition, has a positive effect on technological innovation. Among these studies, research that emphasize exploration of science knowledge, which can help researchers to understand the basic principles of natural phenomena, have recently attracted increasing attention. In order for R&D organizations to accomplish successful innovation, they must depart from the boundaries of applying applied knowledge like technology, and start with fundamental ideas that can help them understand the principles of phenomena. In this respect, basic scientific knowledge enables anticipation of the outcomes of innovation, thereby reducing the uncertainty of R&D as well as reducing the trial and error of the R&D process. Consequently, industrial firms are trying to strengthen their cooperation with scientific organizations such as universities and research institutes in order to actively incorporate scientific knowledge into their industrial innovation. Both academics and practitioners emphasize the importance of explorative R&D based on both science and technology. Nonetheless, research on explorative R&D activities focusing on the convergence of science and technology is still lacking. First, from the viewpoint of knowledge, the effect of convergence between science and technology on innovation has not yet been clarified. Also, in terms of organizational behavior, there is a lack of understanding of internal organizational factors that affect the organizations strategy for conducting explorative R&D. Last, even if industrial firms intend to conduct explorative R&D through cooperation with external scientific partners, they need to understand the factors that can enhance the innovation performance gained through the collaboration. Therefore, this dissertation identifies the determinants of explorative R&D based on science and their effects on the innovations. Specifically, this study tries to provide an integrated view by analyzing it from three different perspectives: knowledge, internal organization, and external organizational aspects. First, this thesis verifies the effects of convergence between science and technology on innovation at the knowledge level. Second, this study suggests the top management team (TMT) within the R&D organization as a key factor influencing the strategy for expanding explorative R&D activities in the organization. Last, this dissertation analyzes the factors that should be considered when industrial firms are collaborating with external scientific partners such as universities and government-funded research institutes to access external scientific knowledge. Chapter 3 analyzes the effects of the convergence between science and technology on innovation from the viewpoint of knowledge. Scientific knowledge not only allows to move away from a fragmentary perspective on phenomena, but also enables to understand more fundamental principles and to find solutions that are closest to the optimal solution. Empirical results show a positive curvilinear relationship between an increasing proportion of science in innovation and innovation impact. Chapter 3 also introduces empirical evidences that shows that the scientific capacity of the R&D organization, regional scientific knowledge spillover, and the maturity of scientific knowledge positively moderate the relationship between the convergence of science and technology and innovation impact. These results not only demonstrate the importance of applying scientific knowledge in industrial R&D, but also reveal the factors that can enhance the innovation performance of convergence. Chapter 4 examines the relationship between organizations R&D activities and its top management team (TMT) by employing upper-echelon theory, which argues that the organizational behavior is influenced by the characteristics and perceptions of the TMT. When TMT members have previous functional experience in R&D, or have been educated in science or engineering, they are perceived to pursue innovation, which ultimately influences the organizations R&D strategy. The empirical analysis shows that the higher the percentage of top executives who have innovative experiences, the higher the proportion of explorative R&D activities in the organization. Furthermore, the longer an individual has experience as a top manager, the more the firm conducts explorative R&D activities. In order to actively conduct explorative R&D activities on science and technology, it can be inferred that decision-makers in organization must be willing to innovate and support the continuation of explorative activities. This is because explorative innovations are accomplished after a long period of time and explorative R&D that incorporates scientific knowledge is costly and might cause temporary financial shocks to the organization. Nonetheless, Chapter 4 suggests the necessity for R&D organizations to expand the proportion of top managers who have innovative experiences beyond the traditional top executive involvement in finance, accounting, law, and management. Chapter 5 analyzes alliances which were formed for the purpose of gaining access to the external scientific knowledge of scientific partners. R&D organizations that pursue industry-focused technology innovation often seek to access scientific knowledge by partnering with scientific research institutes. Due to information asymmetry, however, technology-based firms may have difficulty in selecting appropriate scientific partners. Chapter 5 investigates the knowledge characteristics of the two different organizations, industrial firms and scientific institutes, and identifies the knowledge factors that improve post-alliance innovation performance. Empirical results show that the scientific partners research capacity, knowledge diversity, and knowledge similarity with the industrial firm are positively influencing post-alliance innovation performance. In particular, the level of the industrial firms scientific capacity is found to have a positive moderation effect on the above relationships. Overall, Chapter 5 presents knowledge factors to be considered by industrial firms when searching for potential scientific partners. The results of this dissertation suggest the following implications: First, from the perspective of convergence, this dissertation analyzed both science and technology simultaneously. In order to increase the influence of innovation, it is necessary to establish a R&D strategy that applies the appropriate scientific knowledge during the initial invention stage. The efficiency of R&D can be improved through the convergence of science and technology, which also results in an increase of innovation quality. Second, this dissertation analyzed various aspects of explorative R&D activities. The analysis from the perspectives of the knowledge and the organizations internal and external environment increases the understanding of science-based explorative R&D activities. Last, this thesis examined various factors influencing explorative innovation. Together, this study emphasizes the importance of explorative innovation based on scientific disciplines. At the same time, this study identifies and suggests the factors necessary to understand the characteristics of science-based explorative R&D activities.Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Backgrounds 1 1.2 Research purpose 4 1.3 Research outline 5 Chapter 2. Literature Review 11 2.1 Organizations R&D strategy and science 11 2.1.1 Two directions of R&D strategy 11 2.1.2 Role of science in R&D process 13 2.2 Effects of convergence on innovation 15 2.2.1 Convergence of science and technology 15 2.2.2 Factors influencing the relationship between convergence and innovation 18 2.3 Organizational factors and explorative R&D 22 2.3.1 Organization internal factor: top management team 22 2.3.2 Organization external factor: upstream alliance 26 Chapter 3. Convergence between Science and Technology 30 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Research hypotheses 34 3.2.1 Effects of the convergence of science and technology on innovation 34 3.2.2 Organizations scientific capacity 36 3.2.3 Regional scientific knowledge spillover 38 3.2.4 Scientific knowledge maturity 40 3.3 Methods 42 3.3.1 Data 42 3.3.2 Variables 45 3.3.3 Model 50 3.4 Results 51 3.4.1 Additional analysis 59 3.5 Discussions 63 Chapter 4. Top Management Team (TMT) and Firms R&D Propensity 67 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Research hypotheses 71 4.2.1 Top management team background and the firms R&D direction 71 4.2.2 Moderating effect of TMT members average tenure 73 4.3 Methods 76 4.3.1 Data 76 4.3.2 Variables 78 4.4 Results 84 4.4.1 Additional analysis 95 4.5 Discussions 99 Chapter 5. Scientific Knowledge Transfer in Upstream Alliance 103 5.1 Introduction 103 5.2 Research hypotheses 106 5.2.1 Research performance of scientific partner 106 5.2.2 Knowledge diversity of scientific partner 108 5.2.3 Knowledge stock of scientific partner 110 5.2.4 Knowledge base similarity with scientific partners 112 5.2.5 Internal scientific capability of focal firm 113 5.3 Methods 116 5.3.1 Data 116 5.3.2 Variables 118 5.4 Results 124 5.4.1 Additional analysis 134 5.5 Discussions 137 Chapter 6. Conclusive remarks 140 6.1 Summary and contributions 140 6.2 Limitations and future research 148 Bibliography 156Docto

    Seeking a Better System for the Better Neonatal Care in Korea

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    Due to the decreasing birth rate and the increasing percentage of babies in need of neonatal intensive care, the Korean government has changed its policy to support the institutions that need neonatal intensive care units (NICU). In order to keep up with this change, it is critical to further publicize and educate the importance of neonatal intensive care and newborn baby care because it is the duty of our society to decrease the rate of neonatal death. The most likely reason for the sudden decrease of the neonatal death rate in Korea is probably the advancement of neonatology. Although the constant efforts by neonatologists to improve the quality of the treatment of newborn babies have decreased the neonatal death rate, the general support for neonatal intensive care is still insufficient, as a result of impractical medical fees and the shortage of health care providers for neonatal intensive care compared to in other developed countries. In conclusion, the support from the government through the increment of medical insurance fee is needed to improve the medical environment including neonatal intensive care, which, in turn, could secure general investment and international competitiveness.ope

    Bilirubin Metabolism and Bilirubin Encephalopathy

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    During the last 30 years, there has been much advances in the understanding of pathogenisis of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia, but the risk of bilirubin encephalopathy are still remained for the high risk neonates. The mechanisms of bilirubin encephalopathy are not thouroughly understood. Various theories may explain bilirubin transport acoss the blood-brain barrier. Free bilirubin, not bound to albumin, can enter the brain. The permeability of the blood brain barrier to bilirubin or albuimin and bilirubin binding may play an important role in the bilirubin encephalopathy. Bilirubin binding ability of Korean infants, similar to American infants, is shown to be less than that of adults. Factors influencing bilirubin-albumin binding, such as acidosis, hypoxia, sepsis, hypothermia, hypoglycemia and immaturity should be considered for neonates at high risk of bilirubin encephalopathy. Free bilirubin is found to be significantly increased in preterm infants with low albumin level. Sulfisoxazole inhibits the bilirubin-albumin binding that resulted in increased free bilirubin concentrations even at low total bilirubin levels. Phenobarbital has no effects on bilirubin binding capacity of albumin. Phototherapy for 48 hours has no influence on bilirubin-albumin binding capacitiy and affinity. Auditory evoked repsonse (ABR) changes in the form of I, III, and IV wave reduction are associated with brainstem and cerebellum bilirubin deposition. Since early detection of bilirubin neurotoxicity is promising for improving outcome for high risk neonates, ABR and other electrophysiological measure will be useful.ope

    Comparisons of Physical and Biological Activities between Newfactanยฎ, Surfactenยฎ, Exosurfยฎ

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    Purpose: Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) is caused by the deficiency of pulmonary surfactants in the newborn. We aim to determine and compare the physical and biological activities of the three surfactants currently on the market, namely Newfactanยฎ, Surfactenยฎ and Exosurfยฎ. Methods: For physical activities, we performed the stable microbubble test (SMR) and Pulsating Bubble Surfactometer (PBS). The minimum and maximum surface tensions measured at 1 and 5 minutes allowed us to create the surface-tension diagrams, from which the compressibility at a surface tension of 10 mN/m was calculated for all three products. The biological activities were compared using the pressure-volume curves measured from premature rabbit fetuses. Results: For all three products, the concentration of surfactant and the number of stable microbubbles exhibited a proportional increase in relationship. For both Newfactanยฎ and Surfactenยฎ, the minimal surface tensions were lower than 10 mN/m at 1 and 5 minutes. Hysteresis was evident at 1 and 5 minutes for both Newfactanยฎ and Surfactenยฎ, and their surface tensions were reduced below 10 mN/m at 20% surface compression. As for Exosurfยฎ, all the hysteresis measurements were below expectations, and the reduction in surface tension during compression was also minimal. The compressibilities at a surface tension of 10 mN/m and measured at 1 and 5 minutes for Newfactanยฎ and Surfactenยฎ were less than 0.020 cm/dyne at almost concentrations. The pulmonary surface areas of the fetal rabbits were, after aeration by a maximum of 30 cmH2O, adequately maintained after decompression to 5 cmH2O in the groups treated with Newfactanยฎ and Surfactenยฎ. However, the lung volume was not maintained upon decompression to 5 cmH2O in the groups treated with Exosurfยฎ. Conclusions: Newfactanยฎand Surfactenยฎ were effective agents in prevention of pulmonary collapse in premature lungs.ope

    Oxygenation index as a respiratory parameter of respiratory distress syndrome in preterm infants

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    PURPOSE: To examine whether changes of oxygenation index (OI) by postnatal age were different by the number of surfactant administration, and different between subgroups of survival and death. METHODS: From January 2005 to June 2006, preterm infants (n=84) diagnosed as respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) and treated with surfactant and ventilator were included. They were divided into two groups: Group I (n=54) was infants received surfactant, one time and Group II (n=30) was infants received surfactant, two times. We also categorized group I & II infants into two subgroups in each group: survival group and death group. We calculated OI at birth, 24 hr, 48 hr and 72 hr after birth. RESULTS: Gestational age (30.1+/-2.6 wk vs 28.4+/-3.4 wk) and birth weight (1,478+/-442 g vs 1,199+/-495 g) were different between group I and group II. In preterm infants with RDS, the changes of OI by postnatal age were different between groups (P=0.001) and different with time change (P<0.001). In group I, the OI of survival subgroup showed decreasing by postnatal age compared with death subgroup, but was not significantly different between subgroups. In group II, the change of OI was not different between survival and death. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that OI helps to predict the respiratory condition in preterm infants with RDS.ope

    Positive Maternal C-Reactive Protein Predicts Neonatal Sepsis

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    PURPOSE: To evaluate the diagnostic performance of maternal inflammatory marker: C-reactive protein (CRP) in predicting early onset neonatal sepsis (that occurring within 72 hours after birth). MATERIALS AND METHODS: 126 low birth weight newborns (gestation 32ยฑ3.2 wk, birth weight 1887ยฑ623 g) and their mothers were included. Neonates were divided into sepsis group (n=51) including both proven (positive blood culture) and suspected (negative blood culture but with more than 3 abnormal clinical signs), and controls (n=75). Mothers were subgrouped into CRP positive โ‰ฅ1.22 mg/dL (n=48) and CRP negative <1.22 mg/dL (n=78) group, determined by Receiver Operating Characteristic curves, and odds ratio was calculated for neonatal sepsis according to maternal condition. RESULTS: Maternal CRP was significantly higher in neonatal sepsis group than in control (3.55ยฑ2.69 vs. 0.48ยฑ0.31 mg/dL, p=0.0001). Maternal CRP (cutoff value >1.22 mg/dL) had sensitivity 71% and specificity 84% for predicting neonatal sepsis. Maternal CRP positive group had more neonatal sepsis than CRP negative group (71% vs. 29%, p<0.001). Odds ratio of neonatal sepsis in maternal CRP positive group versus CRP negative group was 10.68 (95% confidence interval: 4.313-26.428, p<0.001). CONCLUSION: The risk of early onset neonatal sepsis significantly increased in the case of positive maternal CRP (โ‰ฅ1.22 mg/dL). In newborn of CRP positive mother, the clinician may be alerted to earlier evaluation for possible neonatal infection prior to development of sepsis.ope

    Urokinase Treatment for Aortic Thrombus in Preterm Infants

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    Purpose : Aortic thrombus is a rare but serious complication in neonates, usually associated with central vessel catheterization. Currently treatment of asymptomatic aortic thrombus in preterm infants is controversial. We evaluated effects of urokinase in preterm infants with aortic thrombi. Methods : We studied 12 preterm infants in whom umbilical arterial catheterizations were performed and subsequently aortic thrombi were detected. In six patients bolus doses of urokinase 4,400 IU/kg were injected, followed by continuous infusions of 4,400 IU/kg/hr. The mean duration of urokinase use was 11 days (6-13 days). The other six patients who did not receive urokinase served as controls. The two groups were compared for changes in the size of thrombi. Results : The initial sizes of aortic thrombi upon detection were similar, although the diagnoses were made earlier in urokinase group than in controls. The days to 50% reduction in size of thrombi were significantly shorter in urokinase group, as were the days to complete resolution. One infant in urokinase group and 2 infants in control group had persistent aortic thrombi up to 90 days of follow-up. Intracranial hemorrhage and disseminated intravascular coagulopathy were absent in all 12 cases. Conclusion : Urokinase administration could be an effective therapy for preterm neonates with aortic thrombi. It significantly reduces the size of the thrombus and shortens the days to complete resolution.ope

    Comparison of Ibuprofen and Indomethacin for Treatment of Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA) in Preterm and Term Infant

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    PURPOSE: Ibuprofen and indomethacin has been used in treatment of patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). In Korea, we have a little experience about ibuprofen. We aim to evaluate effect and adverse reaction of two medications in preterm and term infants. METHODS: The medical records of 24 infants who were admitted at Gangnam Severance hospital NICU diagnosed as PDA and underwent indomethacin treatment from November 2009 to July 2010, and 22 infants who underwent ibuprofen treatment from March 2009 to October 2009 were analyzed. Diagnostic criteria showed as the diameter of ductus arteriosus measured was 1.5 mm and left atrium to aortic root ratio was 1.3 by echocardiography with significant clinical symptom. RESULTS: There was no significant difference between ibuprofen and indomethacin group in gestational age, birth weight, Apgar score and diameter of ductus arteriosus. The rate of PDA closure for 1st trial showed 79% (19/24) in ibuprofen group and 72% (16/22) in indomethacin group. For 2nd trial the rate was 80% (4/5) and 71% (5/7) respectively. There was no difference between two groups in the ratio of increased serum creatinine level, decreased urine output and cumulative dose of furosemide. Incidence of gastrointestinal bleeding, intraventricular hemorrhage and chronic lung disease showed no significant difference between two groups. For term infants, the rate of closure is similar between two groups. CONCLUSION: There was no difference in effect for PDA closure between ibuprofen and indomethacin in preterm and term infants. In addition, there was no significant difference in the rates of adverse reaction between ibuprofen and indomethacinope
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