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    ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„๋ฅผ ์ค‘์‹ฌ์œผ๋กœ

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ(์„์‚ฌ) -- ์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต๋Œ€ํ•™์› : ๋ฒ•๊ณผ๋Œ€ํ•™ ๋ฒ•ํ•™๊ณผ, 2022. 8. ์ด์šฐ์˜.ํ•œ๊ตญ ๋Œ€์˜์ œ ์ž…๋ฒ•์€ ์ž…๋ฒ•๊ธฐ๊ด€ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ์˜ ์ •๋‹น์„ฑ ์ธก๋ฉด์—์„œ๋Š” ์ •๋‹น๋Œ€ํ‘œ์„ฑ์ด ๋งค์šฐ ํ˜‘์†Œํ•˜๊ณ  ์™œ๊ณก๋˜์–ด ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์ด, ์ž…๋ฒ•๊ณผ์ •์˜ ์ •๋‹น์„ฑ ์ธก๋ฉด์—์„œ๋Š” ์ž…๋ฒ•๊ถŒ์ด ์˜ํšŒ์— ๋…์ ๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ ์ด์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์  ๊ฒฌ์ œ์žฅ์น˜๊ฐ€ ์‚ฌ์‹ค์ƒ ์—†๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์ด ๊ฐ€์žฅ ํฐ ๋ฌธ์ œ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ ํ•ด๊ฒฐ์„ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ์ž…๋ฒ•๊ถŒ์„ ๋Œ€์˜๊ธฐ๊ด€๊ณผ ์ฃผ๊ถŒ์ž๊ฐ€ ๋‚˜๋ˆ„์–ด ๊ฐ€์ ธ์•ผ ํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ์ฃผ๊ถŒ์˜ ๋ณธ์งˆ์  ๊ถŒํ•œ์ธ ์ž…๋ฒ•๊ถŒ์€ ๋ฐ˜๋“œ์‹œ ๊ทธ ์ตœ์ข…์  ๊ฒฐ์ •๊ถŒ์ด ์ฃผ๊ถŒ์ž์—๊ฒŒ ์œ ๋ณด๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์–ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ฆ‰, ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์ œ๋„๋กœ์จ ๋Œ€์˜์ œ ์ž…๋ฒ•์„ ๋ณด์™„ํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜์™€ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ž์น˜๋Š” ์น˜์ž์™€ ํ”ผ์น˜์ž์˜ ๋™์ผ์„ฑ ์ถ”๊ตฌ๋ผ๋Š” ๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์˜ ์ด์ƒ ์‹คํ˜„์— ๋งค์šฐ ๊ทผ์ ‘ํ•œ ๊ฐœ๋…์ด๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜์™€ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ž์น˜์˜ ์ง„์ „์€ ๊ทธ๋งŒํผ ๊ตญ๊ฐ€ ์ฐจ์›์˜ ๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜ ์—ญ์‹œ ์งˆ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ „ํ™˜์‹œํ‚ค๋Š” ๊ณ„๊ธฐ์™€ ์›๋™๋ ฅ์ด ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค๊ณ  ๋ณธ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ง์ ‘์ฐธ์—ฌ์˜ ํ˜„์‹ค์„ ๋ถ„์„ํ•˜๊ณ  ์ œ๋„์˜ ๋ฒ•์  ํ™•๋ฆฝ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๊ทธ ๋ฐœ์ „์„ ๋„๋ชจํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์€ ๊ณง ํ—Œ๋ฒ•์  ๊ณผ์ œ๋ฅผ ํ•ด๊ฒฐํ•ด ๋‚˜๊ฐ€๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด๊ธฐ๋„ ํ•˜๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๊ฐ„ ์ž์น˜ํ–‰์ •์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ๋ฒ•๋ฅ ์˜ ์ œยท๊ฐœ์ • ๊ณผ์ •์„ ๋ณด๋ฉด ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๋ฌธ์ œ๋“ค์„ ์ธ์‹ํ•˜๊ณ  ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ฐœ์„ ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ์ผ์ • ๋ถ€๋ถ„ ๋…ธ๋ ฅํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค๊ณ  ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ 1999๋…„์— ์ œ์ •๋œ ๊ธฐ์กด์˜ ์กฐ๋ก€์ œ์ •ยท๊ฐœํ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์ œ๋„์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ, 20๋…„ ๊ฐ„ ๊ทธ ํ™œ์šฉ์‹ค์ ์ด ๋งค์šฐ ์ €์กฐํ•˜์˜€์œผ๋ฉฐ, ๊ฐ€์žฅ ํฐ ๋ฌธ์ œ๋Š” ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์€ ๋‹จ์ง€ ์กฐ๋ก€์•ˆ์„ ์ œ์•ˆ๋งŒ ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์„ ๋ฟ์ด๋ผ๋Š” ์ ์ด์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ๏ฝข์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ๋ฒ•๋ฅ ๏ฝฃ ๋“ฑ ์ตœ๊ทผ ์ œยท๊ฐœ์ •๋œ ๊ด€๋ จ ๋ฒ•๋ฅ ๋“ค์€ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ฐธ์—ฌ์— ์žฅ์• ๊ฐ€ ๋˜๋Š” ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ ์š”์†Œ๋ฅผ ๊ฐœ์„ ํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ์‹œ๋„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ํŠนํžˆ 2021๋…„ ๏ฝข์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ๋ฒ•๋ฅ ๏ฝฃ์ด ๋ณ„๋„์˜ ๋ฒ•๋ฅ ๋กœ ์ œ์ •ยท์‹œํ–‰๋œ ๊ฒƒ์€ ๊ทธ ์ž์ฒด๋กœ ํฐ ์„ฑ๊ณผ์ด๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์š”๊ฑด์„ ์™„ํ™”ํ•œ ์ , ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€์•ˆ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ง€๋ฐฉ์˜ํšŒ ์˜๊ฒฐ๊ธฐํ•œ์„ ๊ฐ•์ œํ•˜๊ณ  ์ž„๊ธฐ๋งŒ๋ฃŒ๋กœ ์ธํ•œ ํ๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๋ฐฉ์ง€ํ•œ ์ , ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์˜ ์ƒ๋Œ€๋ฐฉ์„ ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด์žฅ์—์„œ ์ง€๋ฐฉ์˜ํšŒ๋กœ ๋ณ€๊ฒฝํ•œ ์ , ์ „์ž์„œ๋ช…์˜ ์š”์ฒญ์„ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ•˜๊ฒŒ ํ–ˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ , ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ์ด ๋ฒ•์˜ ๊ทผ๊ฑฐ๋ฒ•๋ฅ ์ธ ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋ฒ•์—์„œ ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์ฃผ์ฒด๋ฅผ โ€˜์ฃผ๋ฏผโ€™์œผ๋กœ ๋ช…์‹œํ•œ ์  ๋“ฑ์€ ์œ ์˜๋ฏธํ•œ ์ง„์ „์ด๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ๏ฝข์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ๋ฒ•๋ฅ ๏ฝฃ์ด๋ผ๋Š” ๋ช…์นญ์—๋„ ๋ถˆ๊ตฌํ•˜๊ณ , ์—ฌ์ „ํžˆ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์€ ์˜ํšŒ์— ์ž…๋ฒ•์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ฒญ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์— ๊ทธ์น  ๋ฟ ์ตœ์ข…๊ฒฐ์ •๊ถŒ์„ ๊ฐ–์ง€ ๋ชปํ•˜๋Š” ์ ๊ณผ, ์ฒญ๊ตฌ ์ œ์™ธ๋Œ€์ƒ์ด ๊ธฐ์กด๊ณผ ๋™์ผํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๊ด‘๋ฒ”์œ„ํ•˜๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์€ ๊ทผ๋ณธ์ ์ธ ํ•œ๊ณ„์ด๋‹ค. ์ผ๋ถ€๊ฐœ์ •๋œ ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ๋ฒ•์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๋„, ํˆฌํ‘œ ๋Œ€์ƒ์„ ํ™•๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ , ํˆฌํ‘œ ํ™•์ •์š”๊ฑด์„ ์™„ํ™”ํ•˜๊ณ  ๊ฐœํ‘œ์š”๊ฑด์„ ํ์ง€ํ•œ ์ , ์ „์ž์„œ๋ช…์— ์˜ํ•œ ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์™€ ์ „์žํˆฌยท๊ฐœํ‘œ๋ฅผ ๋„์ž…ํ•œ ์ , ํˆฌํ‘œ์ผ์„ ํŠน์ • ์ˆ˜์š”์ผ๋กœ ๋ช…ํ™•ํžˆ ํ•œ ์ , ํˆฌํ‘œ์‹ค์‹œ๊ตฌ์—ญ์˜ ์„ค์ • ๋ฒ”์œ„๋ฅผ ์œ ์—ฐํ™”ํ•œ ์  ๋“ฑ์€ ๊ธ์ •์ ์œผ๋กœ ํ‰๊ฐ€ํ•  ๋ถ€๋ถ„์ด๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ์—ญ์‹œ ์ฒญ๊ตฌ๋Œ€์ƒ์ด ํ™•๋Œ€๋˜์ง€ ์•Š์€ ์ ๊ณผ, ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด์žฅยท์ง€๋ฐฉ์˜ํšŒ์— ์˜ํ•œ ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ๊ฐ€ ํ์ง€ยท์ถ•์†Œ๋˜์ง€ ์•Š์€ ์ ์€ ํ•œ๊ณ„์ด๋‹ค. ์ด๋ฏธ ๋งˆ๋ จ๋œ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„์˜ ํ•œ๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๊ฐœ์„ ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ํ•™๊ณ„์™€ ์ž…๋ฒ• ๋‹ด๋‹น์ž ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ๊ฐ์ข… ๋‹จ์ฒด๋“ค์ด ์ œ์•ˆํ•œ ๋ฐฉ์•ˆ๋“ค์„ ๋ฒ•๋ฆฌ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ฒ€ํ† ํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ์™€ ๋ณธ๊ณ ์˜ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ๋ฐ”ํƒ•์œผ๋กœ, ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ฐธ์—ฌ๋ฅผ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™”ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด ๋ณธ๊ณ ๊ฐ€ ์ œ์•ˆํ•˜๋Š” ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„์˜ ๊ฐœ์„ ๋ฐฉ์•ˆ์€ ๋‹ค์Œ๊ณผ ๊ฐ™๋‹ค. ์ฒซ์งธ, ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ๊ณผ ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ๋ฅผ ๊ฒฐ๋ถ€์‹œ์ผœ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋“ค์—๊ฒŒ ์ตœ์ข…๊ฒฐ์ •๊ถŒ์„ ๋ถ€์—ฌํ•˜์—ฌ์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ฆ‰, ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์˜์•ˆ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์˜ํšŒ๊ฐ€ ๋ถ€๊ฒฐ ๋˜๋Š” ๋Œ€์•ˆ์„ ์˜๊ฒฐํ•  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์ธ์ธ ๋Œ€ํ‘œ์ž๊ฐ€ ๋ฐœ์˜์•ˆ์„ ์ฒ ํšŒํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๋Š” ํ•œ ์ž๋™์œผ๋กœ ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ์— ํšŒ๋ถ€๋˜๋Š” ๋ฐฉ์‹์œผ๋กœ ๋ฐœ์ „์‹œ์ผœ์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ๏ฝข์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ๋ฒ•๋ฅ ๏ฝฃ๊ณผ ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ๋ฒ•์„ ํ†ตํ•ฉํ•˜์—ฌ โ€˜์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ๊ณผ ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ๋ฒ•๋ฅ โ€™์„ ์ œ์ •ํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋‘˜์งธ, ์ฒญ๊ตฌ ๊ธˆ์ง€๋Œ€์ƒ์„ ์ตœ์†Œํ™”ํ•˜๊ณ  ์ฒญ๊ตฌ๋Œ€์ƒ์„ ํ™•๋Œ€ํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์กฐ์„ธ, ์˜ˆ์‚ฐ ๋“ฑ ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์ผ์ˆ˜๋ก ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์ด ํ†ต์ œํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์–ด์•ผ ํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ๋ฌด์—‡์ด ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์ธ์ง€์˜ ํŒ๋‹จ ๋˜ํ•œ ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์—๊ฒŒ ๋งก๊ฒจ์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋‚˜์•„๊ฐ€ ์žฅ๊ธฐ์ ์œผ๋กœ๋Š”, ํ˜„์žฌ ์กฐ๋ก€๋งŒ์„ ๋Œ€์ƒ์œผ๋กœ ํ•˜๋Š” ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„๋ฅผ ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด์˜ ์‚ฌ๋ฌด์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ์ผ๋ฐ˜์  ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„๋กœ ํ™•๋Œ€ ๊ฐœํŽธํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์…‹์งธ, ๊ตญ์„ ๋Œ€๋ฆฌ์ธ ์ œ๋„ ๋„์ž…์„ ํ†ตํ•œ ์ž…๋ฒ• ์ง€์› ๋ฐ ๋น„์šฉ ๊ณต๊ณต ์ง€์›์ด ํ•„์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค. ํ—Œ๋ฒ•์žฌํŒ์†Œ๋ฒ•์ƒ์˜ ๊ตญ์„ ๋Œ€๋ฆฌ์ธ ์ œ๋„๋ฅผ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์—๋„ ์›์šฉํ•  ํ•„์š”๊ฐ€ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์„ ๊ฑฐ๋ฅผ ์น˜๋ฅด๋Š” ์ •๋‹น๋“ค์ฒ˜๋Ÿผ, ๋ฐœ์•ˆํ•˜๋Š” ์‹œ๋ฏผ๋“ค๋„ ์„œ๋ช… ์šด๋™ ๋น„์šฉ์„ ๊ณต์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ง€์›๋ฐ›์„ ๊ถŒ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ ธ์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๊ด€๋ จ ์š”๊ฑด์„ ์ถฉ์กฑํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ์—๋Š” ์ง€๋ฐฉ์˜ํšŒ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ž…๋ฒ•์ง€์›์— ์ค€ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์—๊ฒŒ๋„ ํ•„์š”ํ•œ ์žฌ์ •์ , ๊ธฐ์ˆ ์  ์ง€์›์„ ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด ํ•„์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค. ๋„ท์งธ, ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด๋ณ„ ์ฐจ๋ณ„ํ™”์™€ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์˜ ๊ถŒํ•œ ๊ฐ•ํ™”๊ฐ€ ํ•„์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ ์ ˆ์ฐจ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด๋ณ„ ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ž์œจ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ •ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ๊ณผ ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ์˜ ๊ฒฐ๋ถ€๋‚˜ ์ฒญ๊ตฌ๋Œ€์ƒ ํ™•๋Œ€ ๋“ฑ์„ ๋จผ์ € ์‹œํ–‰ํ•˜๊ณ , ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ์—์„œ์˜ ์ตœ์†Œํˆฌํ‘œ์œจ ํ์ง€๋ฅผ ์‹คํ—˜ํ•ด ๋ณด๋Š” ๋“ฑ, ์ œ๋„ ์„ค๊ณ„๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ž์น˜๋ฅผ ์‹คํ˜„ํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜๋Š” ์˜์ง€๊ฐ€ ๋” ๊ฐ•ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋ฐ˜์˜๋˜์–ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ๊ณ ๋Š” ์ด์ƒ์˜ ๊ตฌ์ฒด์ ์ธ ์ œ๋„ ์ œ์•ˆ๊ณผ ํ•จ๊ป˜, ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์ œ๋„๋ฅผ ์„ค๊ณ„ํ•จ์— ์žˆ์–ด ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์˜์‚ฌ๋ฅผ ์ตœ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋ฐ˜์˜ํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ตญ๊ฐ€์˜์‚ฌ๋ฅผ ๊ฒฐ์ •ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” โ€˜์ฐธ์—ฌโ€™์˜ ๋ฌธ์ œ์™€, ์ตœ์„ ์˜ ๊ณต์ต๊ณผ ๊ตญ๊ฐ€์˜์‚ฌ๋ฅผ ์‹คํ˜„ํ•˜๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•œ ๊ณต๋ก ์ ˆ์ฐจ๋ฅผ ์‚ฌ์ „์— ๋งˆ๋ จํ•˜๋Š” โ€˜์ˆ™์˜โ€™์˜ ๋ฌธ์ œ๊ฐ€ ๋™์‹œ์— ๊ณ ๋ ค๋˜์–ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์„ ๊ฐ•์กฐํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ฆ‰ ์ •๋‹น์„ฑ๊ณผ ์ฑ…์ž„์„ฑ์˜ ์š”์†Œ๋ฅผ ํ•จ๊ป˜ ์ค‘์‹œํ•˜๋Š” ๊ท ํ˜• ์žกํžŒ ์‹œ๊ฐ์ด ํ•„์š”ํ•˜๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜ ์ฐจ์›์—์„œ๋Š”, ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ง์ ‘์ฐธ์—ฌ์ œ๋„์˜ ๋„์ž…ยทํ™•๋Œ€๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์˜ ์ •๋‹น์„ฑ์„ ๋†’์ž„๊ณผ ๋™์‹œ์—, ์ˆ™์˜์˜ ๊ณผ์ •์„ ์„ธ๋ฐ€ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์„ค๊ณ„ํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ ์˜ˆ์ƒ๋˜๋Š” ์œ„ํ—˜์„ฑ ๋˜ํ•œ ์‚ฌ์ „์— ์ฐจ๋‹จํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด๋‹ค. ์ด๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ๊ณต๋ก ์กฐ์‚ฌ ํ™œ์šฉ ๋“ฑ ๊ธฐ์กด ์‹ฌ์˜๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์—์„œ ์ œ์‹œ๋œ ๋ฐฉ์‹๋“ค๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ์šฐ์„ ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ ๊ทน ํ™œ์šฉํ•  ํ•„์š”๊ฐ€ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์ˆ™์˜ ๊ณผ์ •์„ ์ œ๊ณตํ•˜๊ณ  ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ฑ…์ž„์„ ์งˆ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์ฃผ์ฒด์˜ ๋ฌธ์ œ๋„ ๊ณ ๋ คํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด์— ๋ณธ๊ณ ๊ฐ€ ์ค‘์š”ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์ œ์•ˆํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์€ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ฐธ์—ฌ์ž…๋ฒ•์˜ ์‹ค์งˆ์  ์ฃผ์ฒด๊ฐ€ ๋  ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น์˜ ํ™•๋ฆฝ์ด๋‹ค. ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น ํ™•๋ฆฝ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ๊ธฐ๋Œ€ํšจ๊ณผ๋กœ๋Š” ์›๋ž˜ ๋ชฉ์ ์ธ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™” ์™ธ์—๋„, ์ •๋‹น์ฒด๊ณ„ ๊ฐœํŽธ์˜ ๊ณ„๊ธฐ ์ œ๊ณต, ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์˜์› ์ •๋‹น๊ณต์ฒœ์˜ ๋”œ๋ ˆ๋งˆ ํ•ด๊ฒฐ ๋“ฑ์„ ๋“ค ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋จผ์ €, ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™”์™€ ๊ด€๋ จํ•ด์„œ๋Š”, ์ง€์—ญ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋“ค์ด ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์ธ ์„œ๋ช…์— ํ•„์š”ํ•œ ์กฐ์ง๊ณผ ์ž์›์„ ๋งˆ๋ จํ•˜๊ณ , ์—ฌ๋ก ํ˜•์„ฑ์„ ์œ„ํ•œ ๊ณต๋ก ์˜ ์žฅ์— ๋ณด๋‹ค ์ ๊ทน์ ์ด๊ณ  ํšจ์œจ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ฐธ์—ฌํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์—ญ์œผ๋กœ, ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ง์ ‘์ฐธ์—ฌ์ œ๋„๋Š” ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น์˜ ์ฃผํšจํ•œ ํ™œ๋™์ „๋žต์ด ๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์ง€์—ญ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋“ค์ด ๋Š๋ผ๋Š” ํšจ๋Šฅ๊ฐ์€ ์ƒ์Šนํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น์€ ์ˆ™์˜์˜ ๊ณผ์ •์„ ์ œ๊ณตํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์˜ ํ๋‹จ์œผ๋กœ ๊ฑฐ๋ก ๋˜๋Š”, โ€˜์ˆ™์˜ ๋ถ€์กฑโ€™์˜ ๋ฌธ์ œ๋ฅผ ํ•ด๊ฒฐํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ๋„ ๊ธฐ์—ฌํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น ์„ค๋ฆฝ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๊ฐœ๋ฐฉ์  ์ •๋‹น์ฒด๊ณ„๋กœ ์ „ํ™˜๋จ์œผ๋กœ์จ ํ•œ๊ตญ ์ •๋‹น์ •์น˜์˜ ๊ณ ์งˆ์  ๋ฌธ์ œ์ธ ์ง€์—ญ์ฃผ์˜์— ๊ธฐ๋ฐ˜์„ ๋‘๊ณ  ์–‘๋‹น์œผ๋กœ ๊ณ ์ฐฉํ™”๋œ ์ •๋‹น์ฒด๊ณ„์™€, ๊ทธ์— ์ข…์†๋œ ์ง€์—ญ์ •์น˜๋ฌธํ™”์˜ ๊ทน๋ณต์„ ๊ธฐ๋Œ€ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์˜์›์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ •๋‹น๊ณต์ฒœ์ด ์ด๋ฃจ์–ด์ง€๋”๋ผ๋„ ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น์ด ํ—ˆ์šฉ๋œ๋‹ค๋ฉด, ์œ ๊ถŒ์ž๋“ค์—๊ฒŒ ํ›„๋ณด์ž์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ํŒ๋‹จํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์ •๋ณด๋ฅผ ์ œ๊ณตํ•˜๋ฉด์„œ๋„ ์ง€์—ญ์ •์น˜์˜ ์ค‘์•™์ •์น˜์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ข…์†์€ ์ค„์ผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น์€ ์ •๋‹น๊ณต์ฒœ ๋ฐฐ์ œ์— ๋”ฐ๋ฅธ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์˜์› ํ›„๋ณด์ž์˜ ์ •์น˜์  ํ‘œํ˜„์˜ ์ž์œ  ์นจํ•ด๋‚˜ ํ‰๋“ฑ์˜ ์›์น™ ์œ„๋ฐ˜ ์†Œ์ง€ ์—†์ด, ์ง€์—ญ์‹ค์ •์— ๋งž๋Š” ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜ ์‹คํ˜„์— ๊ธฐ์—ฌํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š” ์œ ์šฉํ•œ ๋Œ€์•ˆ์ด๋‹ค. ์ด๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ์ •๋‹น๋ฒ•์ƒ ์ •๋‹น์„ค๋ฆฝ์กฐํ•ญ์ด ๊ฐœ์ •๋˜์–ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋ฒ• ์ œ3์กฐ์˜ ์ค‘์•™๋‹น ์†Œ์žฌ์ง€๋ฅผ ์ˆ˜๋„๋กœ ๊ฐ•์ œํ•˜๋Š” ๊ทœ์ •์„ ํ์ง€ํ•˜๊ณ , ์ •๋‹น๋ฒ•์ƒ โ€˜์ •๋‹นโ€™ ์ž์ฒด๋ฅผ ์ „๊ตญ์ •๋‹น๊ณผ ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น์œผ๋กœ ์ด์›ํ™”ํ•ด์•ผ ํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น ์„ค๋ฆฝ์˜ ๊ทผ๊ฑฐ ๋‹จ์œ„๋Š” ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด ํ˜น์€ ๊ทธ๋ณด๋‹ค ํ•˜์œ„ ๋‹จ์œ„๊ฐ€ ๋˜์–ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์žฅ๊ธฐ์ ์œผ๋กœ๋Š” ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น๋“ค์ด ์—ฐํ•ฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์ „๊ตญ๋‹จ์œ„ ์„ ๊ฑฐ๋„ ์ถœ๋งˆํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋„๋ก ํ•˜๋˜, ์ฒ˜์Œ์—๋Š” ์ง€๋ฐฉ์„ ๊ฑฐ์—๋งŒ ์ถœ๋งˆํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๊ฒŒ๋” ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐฉ์•ˆ๋„ ๊ณ ๋ คํ•ด ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋‚˜์•„๊ฐ€ ํ˜„์žฌ์˜ ์ „๊ตญ์ •๋‹น ์ •๋‹น์„ค๋ฆฝ์š”๊ฑด ์—ญ์‹œ ์™„ํ™”ํ•ด์•ผ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™”๋Š” ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋“ค์—๊ฒŒ ์˜จ์ „ํ•œ ๊ถŒํ•œ, ์ฆ‰ ๋ฐœ์•ˆ๋Œ€์ƒ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ฒฐ์ •๊ถŒ ๋ฐ ์ตœ์ข…์ ์ธ ๊ฐ€๋ถ€๊ฒฐ์ •๊ถŒ์„ ๋ถ€์—ฌํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ•˜๋‹ค. ์ด๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ์‹คํ˜„ ๋‹จ์œ„ ์ฐจ์›์—์„œ๋Š” ๊ด‘์—ญ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์œ„๋ณด๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์œ„์—, ์‹คํ˜„ ์ฃผ์ฒด์˜ ์ฐจ์›์—์„œ๋Š” ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น์— ๋ณด๋‹ค ๋” ์ดˆ์ ์„ ๋งž์ถœ ํ•„์š”๊ฐ€ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์‹œ๋„๋“ค์€ ๊ทธ ์ž์ฒด๋กœ ํ—Œ๋ฒ•์ƒ์˜ ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์ฃผ๊ถŒ์ฃผ์˜์˜ ์‹ค์งˆ์  ๊ตฌํ˜„๊ณผ์ •์ด๋ผ ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค.There are two major problems with legitimacy of representative legislation in Korea. One is that party representation in the composition of the legislative body is very narrow and distorted. Another is that the legislative power is monopolized by the assembly during the legislative process, and there is virtually no national check-in system. To solve these problems, representative legislation as a direct democracy system needs to be improved. That is, legislative power should be shared between the representative body and the sovereign, and the final decision-making for the legislative power, which is the essential power of sovereignty, should be reserved to the sovereign. The theme of this article is to analyze the reality of direct resident participation and to promote its development through legal establishment of the system, targeting the 2021 Resident Ordinance Initiative Act. Local autonomy and resident autonomy are concepts very close to the realization of the ideal of democracy, which is the identity of the governor and the governed. The progress of the two autonomies can serve as an opportunity and driving force to qualitatively transform democracy at the national level. Accordingly, this study can be said to solve the constitutional problems. Looking at the process of enacting and revising the law on self-governing administration thus far, these problems have been recognized and some efforts have been made to improve them. However, there is still insufficiency. The existing resident ordinance claim system, which was enacted in 1999, has been underutilized over the past 20 years. The fact that the Resident Ordinance Initiative Act in 2021 was enacted and implemented as a separate law is a great achievement in itself. The result of this Act was that it relaxed the claim requirements, enforced the local council's resolution on the resident ordinance act and prevented it from being discarded due to the expiration of the term of office, changed the other party of the claim from the head of the local autonomous government to the local council, and enabled a request for electronic signature. Moreover, another achievement is the fact that the subject of claim is specified as โ€˜residentโ€™ in the Local Autonomy Act, which is the underlying law. However, the limitations are also clear. Residents still have no final decision-making power, but only petition the assembly for legislation. Subjects excluded from the claim are broad as before. Expanding the voting target through partial amendments to the referendum law(Residents' Voting Act) and flexibilizing various restrictions are positive. However, the fact that the scope of claim subject has not been expanded and that referendums by local autonomous government heads and local councils have not been abolished or reduced is a limitation. The plans for improvement of the resident ordinance initiative system presented in this article are as follows. First, the final decision-making power should be given to the residents by linking the resident ordinance initiative and referendum. This will be possible by integrating the two laws and enacting the โ€œlaw on initiatives and referendums.โ€ Second, the subject prohibited of claim should be minimized and the subject of claim should be expanded. Third, legislative support and public support for costs are needed through the introduction of the system for the appointment of a public representative. Fourth, differentiation by local autonomous government and strengthening of the authority of local residents of local autonomous entity are needed. This article emphasizes the need for a balanced perspective that emphasizes both legitimacy and accountability when designing a direct democracy system, along with the detailed system proposals above. For this, there is a need to actively utilize the methods suggested in the existing deliberative democracy, such as the use of public opinion surveys. In addition, consideration should be given to the issue of who may be responsible for providing a deliberative process and for the outcome. Recognizing this importance, this article argues for the establishment of a local political party that will be the real subject of legislation for resident direct participation. This can be expected to revitalize the resident ordinance initiative system, provide an opportunity to reorganize the party system, and solve the dilemma of party nomination for municipal council. First, local residents can participate more actively and efficiently in the arena of public opinion to form public opinion through local political parties. In particular, if local political parties use the direct resident participation system as an effective strategy, this can increase the sense of efficacy felt by local residents toward local political parties. Second, by transforming into an open party system through the establishment of a local party, the party system that has been fixed as a two-party system based on regionalism, which is a chronic problem in Korean party politics, and local political culture subordinated to it can be overcome. Third, if nomination by local political parties for municipal councils are allowed, the issue of local politics as being subordinated to central politics, which is an evil that has been a problem so far, can be reduced. At the same time, voters are provided with information to determine candidates. To this end, the provisions on establishment of a political party in the Political Party Act should be amended. The current party establishment requirements, such as the repeal of Article 3 of the Act forcing the seat of the central party to be the capital, should be eased and a method of protecting the new party should be examined. It should be kept in mind that such vitalization of the resident ordinance initiative system would be possible by giving the residents the right to decide the subject of the initiative and the final decision-making power. Furthermore, when various measures are attempted with the focus on the local autonomous government rather than the regional autonomous unit and on the local party rather than the central party, the effect will be more substantial. This process would be the actual realization of the constitutional national sovereignty.์ œ1์žฅ ์„œ๋ก  1 ์ œ1์ ˆ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๋Œ€์ƒ ๋ฐ ๋ชฉ์  1 ์ œ2์ ˆ ๋ฌธ์ œ ์ œ๊ธฐ ๋ฐ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๋ฒ”์œ„ 3 โ… . ๋Œ€์˜์ œ ์ž…๋ฒ•์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋ฌธ์ œ์˜์‹ 3 โ…ก. ์„ ํ–‰์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฒ€ํ†  7 1. ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ข…ํ•ฉ์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๋ฐ ์ž…๋ฒ•ํ•™์  ์—ฐ๊ตฌ 7 2. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ 9 โ…ข. ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์˜ ๋ฒ”์œ„ ๋ฐ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ• 12 ์ œ2์žฅ ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜์™€ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ 15 ์ œ1์ ˆ ํ•œ๊ตญ์˜ ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜์™€ ์กฐ๋ก€ 15 โ… . ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜ 15 1. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜์˜ ์˜์˜ 15 2. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜์˜ ์—ฐํ˜ 16 3. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜์˜ ์ œ๋„๋ณด์žฅ 16 4. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๊ถŒ์˜ ๋ณธ์งˆ 17 โ…ก. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด์™€ ์ž์น˜์ž…๋ฒ•๊ถŒ 17 1. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด์˜ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์™€ ๊ธฐ๊ด€ 17 2. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด์˜ ๊ถŒํ•œ๊ณผ ์ž์น˜์ž…๋ฒ•๊ถŒ 18 โ…ข. ์กฐ๋ก€ 19 1. ์กฐ๋ก€์˜ ์˜์˜์™€ ์ข…๋ฅ˜ 19 2. ์กฐ๋ก€์˜ ํ•œ๊ณ„ 20 3. ์กฐ๋ก€์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํ†ต์ œ 21 4. ์ž์น˜์ž…๋ฒ•์œผ๋กœ์„œ์˜ ์กฐ๋ก€์™€ ๊ธฐํƒ€ ํ–‰์ •์ž…๋ฒ•์˜ ์ฐจ์ด 22 5. ์กฐ๋ก€์ œ์ •ํ˜„ํ™ฉ 23 ์ œ2์ ˆ ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์™€ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ž์น˜ 26 โ… . ๋Œ€์˜์ œ ์ž…๋ฒ•์˜ ์˜์˜์™€ ํ•œ๊ณ„ 26 1. ๋Œ€์˜์ œ ์ž…๋ฒ•์˜ ๋‘ ์ฐจ์› 26 2. ๋Œ€์˜์ œ ์ž…๋ฒ•์˜ ์ •๋‹น์„ฑ๊ณผ ํ•œ๊ณ„ 28 1) ์ž…๋ฒ•๊ธฐ๊ด€ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ์˜ ์ •๋‹น์„ฑ๊ณผ ํ•œ๊ณ„ 28 2) ์ž…๋ฒ•๊ณผ์ •์˜ ์ •๋‹น์„ฑ๊ณผ ํ•œ๊ณ„ 30 3. ํ•œ๊ตญ ๋Œ€์˜์ œ ์ž…๋ฒ•์˜ ๋ฌธ์ œ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํ•ด๊ฒฐ์˜ ๋‘ ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ 34 โ…ก. ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜ ๋ณด์™„๋ก  35 1. ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์˜ ์›์น™๊ณผ '์ฐธ์—ฌ''์ˆ™์˜'์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ๋…ผ์˜ 35 1) ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์˜ ์›์น™ 35 2) '์ฐธ์—ฌ''์ˆ™์˜'์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ๋…ผ์˜ 36 2. ์˜ค๋Š˜๋‚  ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์˜ ํŠน์ง•: ํ‘œ๊ฒฐ๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜ 39 3. ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์˜ ์œ ํ˜• 40 1) ๊ตญ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ(popular initiative) 40 2) ๊ตญ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ(referendum) 41 3) ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์†Œํ™˜(recall) 42 4) ์œ ์‚ฌ ์ œ๋„์™€์˜ ์ฐจ์ด์  ๋ฐ ๋น„๊ต์˜ ์˜์˜ 43 4. ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์˜ ๊ธฐ๋Œ€ํšจ๊ณผ 45 โ…ข. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ž์น˜์™€ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ง์ ‘์ฐธ์—ฌ์ œ๋„ 46 1. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ž์น˜ 46 1) ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ž์น˜์˜ ์˜์˜ 46 2) ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ž์น˜์™€ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด 47 2. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ฐธ์—ฌ์˜ ํ—Œ๋ฒ•์  ๊ทผ๊ฑฐ์™€ ๊ธฐ๋Šฅ 49 3. ํ•œ๊ตญ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ง์ ‘์ฐธ์—ฌ์ œ๋„์˜ ๋„์ž… ์—ฐํ˜ 49 4. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ง์ ‘์ฐธ์—ฌ์ œ๋„์˜ ๋ณธ์งˆ์  ์š”๊ฑด์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ณ ์ฐฐ 50 ์ œ3์ ˆ ํ•ด์™ธ์˜ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ 53 โ… . ์Šค์œ„์Šค ๋ฒ ๋ฅธ์ฃผ ๋ตˆ๋‹ˆ๊ฒ ๊ฒŒ๋งˆ์ธ๋ฐ์˜ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ - 53 1. ์Šค์œ„์Šค์˜ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ 53 2. ๋ฒ ๋ฅธ(Bern) ์ฃผ์˜ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ 53 3. ๋ตˆ๋‹ˆ๊ฒ(Bnigen) ๊ฒŒ๋งˆ์ธ๋ฐ์˜ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ 54 โ…ก. ๋ฏธ๊ตญ ์บ˜๋ฆฌํฌ๋‹ˆ์•„์ฃผ ์ƒŒํ”„๋ž€์‹œ์Šค์ฝ” ์‹œ์นด์šดํ‹ฐ ํ†ตํ•ฉ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ 55 1. ๋ฏธ๊ตญ์˜ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ 55 2. ์บ˜๋ฆฌํฌ๋‹ˆ์•„(California) ์ฃผ์˜ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ 56 3. ์ƒŒํ”„๋ž€์‹œ์Šค์ฝ”(San Francisco) ์‹œ์นด์šดํ‹ฐ ํ†ตํ•ฉ์ •๋ถ€์˜ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ 58 โ…ข. ์ผ๋ณธ์˜ ์กฐ๋ก€์ œ์ •๊ฐœํ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์ œ๋„ - 59 1. ์—ฐํ˜ 59 2. ์ œ๋„ 59 3. ์šด์˜ ํ˜„ํ™ฉ 60 4. ํŠน์ง• 60 โ…ฃ. ํ•ด์™ธ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„์˜ ์‹œ์‚ฌ์  - 61 ์ œ3์žฅ ํ•œ๊ตญ์˜ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ฒ€ํ†  63 ์ œ1์ ˆ ํ•œ๊ตญ์˜ ์กฐ๋ก€์ œ์ •๊ฐœํ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์ œ๋„์˜ ๋‚ด์šฉ ๋ฐ ๋ฌธ์ œ์  63 โ… . ์ œ์ • ๋‹น์‹œ ์กฐ๋ก€์ œ์ •๊ฐœํ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์ œ๋„์˜ ์ฃผ์š”๋‚ด์šฉ 63 1. ๋„์ž… ์—ฐํ˜ ๋ฐ ์˜์˜ 63 2. ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์˜ ์ฃผ์ฒด์™€ ์ƒ๋Œ€๋ฐฉ 63 3. ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์˜ ๋Œ€์ƒ 63 4. ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์˜ ์ ˆ์ฐจ 64 โ…ก. ์กฐ๋ก€์ œ์ •๊ฐœํ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์ œ๋„์˜ ๊ฐœ์ • ์—ฐํ˜ ๋ฐ ๋‚ด์šฉ 64 1. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋ฒ•์˜ ๊ด€๋ จ ๊ฐœ์ • ์—ฐํ˜ ๋ฐ ๋‚ด์šฉ 64 1) 2005. 1. 27. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋ฒ• ์ผ๋ถ€๊ฐœ์ •(๋ฒ•๋ฅ  ์ œ7362ํ˜ธ) 64 2) 2006. 1. 11. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋ฒ• ์ผ๋ถ€๊ฐœ์ •(๋ฒ•๋ฅ  ์ œ7846ํ˜ธ) 65 3) 2007. 5. 11. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋ฒ• ์ „๋ถ€๊ฐœ์ •(๋ฒ•๋ฅ  ์ œ8423ํ˜ธ) 65 4) 2009. 4. 1. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋ฒ• ์ผ๋ถ€๊ฐœ์ •(๋ฒ•๋ฅ  ์ œ9577ํ˜ธ) 65 5) 2011. 7. 14. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋ฒ• ์ผ๋ถ€๊ฐœ์ •(๋ฒ•๋ฅ  ์ œ10827ํ˜ธ) 66 6) 2021. 1. 12. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋ฒ• ์ „๋ถ€๊ฐœ์ •(๋ฒ•๋ฅ  ์ œ17893ํ˜ธ) 66 2. ์ œ์ฃผํŠน๋ณ„์ž์น˜๋„ ์„ค์น˜ ๋ฐ ๊ตญ์ œ์ž์œ ๋„์‹œ ์กฐ์„ฑ์„ ์œ„ํ•œ ํŠน๋ณ„๋ฒ• ์ œ๊ฐœ์ • ์—ฐํ˜ ๋ฐ ๋‚ด์šฉ 66 1) 2006. 2. 21. ์ œ์ฃผํŠน๋ณ„๋ฒ• ์ œ์ •(๋ฒ•๋ฅ  ์ œ7849ํ˜ธ) 66 2) ์ดํ›„ ๊ฐœ์ • ์—ฐํ˜ 67 โ…ข. ๊ธฐ์กด ์กฐ๋ก€์ œ์ •๊ฐœํ์ฒญ๊ตฌ์ œ๋„์˜ ์šด์˜ ํ˜„ํ™ฉ ๋ฐ ๋ฌธ์ œ์  67 1. ์šด์˜ ํ˜„ํ™ฉ 67 2. ๋ฌธ์ œ์  69 ์ œ2์ ˆ ์ตœ๊ทผ ๊ด€๋ จ ์ œ๊ฐœ์ • ๋ฒ•๋ฅ ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ฒ€ํ†  71 โ… . 2021. 1. 12. ์ „๋ถ€๊ฐœ์ • ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋ฒ• ๊ฒ€ํ†  71 1. ๊ฐœ์ • ์ด์œ  71 2. ๊ฐœ์ • ๋‚ด์šฉ 71 1) ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ฃผ๊ถŒ ๊ตฌํ˜„ 71 2) ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด ์—ญ๋Ÿ‰ ๊ฐ•ํ™” ๋ฐ ์ž์น˜๊ถŒ ํ™•๋Œ€ 72 3) ์ค‘์•™-์ง€๋ฐฉ ํ˜‘๋ ฅ๊ด€๊ณ„ ์ •๋ฆฝ ๋ฐ ํ–‰์ • ๋Šฅ๋ฅ ์„ฑ ์ œ๊ณ  72 3. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ž…๋ฒ•๊ถŒ ๊ฐ•ํ™” ๋ถ€๋ถ„์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ฒ€ํ†  73 1) ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ ๋„์ž… 73 2) ์กฐ๋ก€์ œ์ •๊ถŒ ๊ฐ•ํ™” 73 3) ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์˜ ๊ทœ์น™์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์˜๊ฒฌ์ œ์ถœ๊ถŒ ์‹ ์„ค 75 โ…ก. 2021. 10. 19. ์ œ์ • ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ๋ฒ•๋ฅ  ๊ฒ€ํ†  76 1. ์ œ์ • ์ด์œ  ๋ฐ ์ฃผ์š” ๋‚ด์šฉ 76 2. ์˜์˜ ๋ฐ ํ•œ๊ณ„ 78 1) ์˜์˜ 78 2) ํ•œ๊ณ„ 78 โ…ข. 2022. 4. 26. ๊ฐœ์ • ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ๋ฒ• ๊ฒ€ํ†  79 1. ๊ฐœ์ • ์ด์œ  ๋ฐ ์ฃผ์š” ๋‚ด์šฉ 79 2. ์˜์˜ ๋ฐ ํ•œ๊ณ„ 82 1) ์˜์˜ 82 2) ํ•œ๊ณ„ ๋ฐ ๊ฐœ์„ ๋ฐฉํ–ฅ 82 ์ œ3์ ˆ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™” ๋ฐฉ์•ˆ 84 โ… . ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ๊ณผ ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ์˜ ๊ฒฐ๋ถ€ 84 1. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์ฐธ์—ฌ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•œ ๊ตญ๋ฏผ์ฃผ๊ถŒ์˜ ์‹ค์งˆํ™” 84 2. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์— ์˜ํ•œ ์ตœ์ข…๊ฒฐ์ •์˜ ํ•„์š”์„ฑ 85 3. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ๊ณผ ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ์— ๊ด€ํ•œ ๋ฒ•๋ฅ ๋กœ ํ†ตํ•ฉ์˜ ํ•„์š”์„ฑ 86 โ…ก. ์ฒญ๊ตฌ๋Œ€์ƒ ํ™•๋Œ€ 88 1. ์žฌ์ •๊ธˆ๊ธฐ์กฐํ•ญ ์™„ํ™” 88 2. ์ฒญ๊ตฌ ๊ธˆ์ง€๋Œ€์ƒ ์ตœ์†Œํ™” 89 3. ์กฐ๋ก€์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์—์„œ ์ผ๋ฐ˜์  ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์œผ๋กœ์˜ ํ™•๋Œ€๊ฐœํŽธ 90 โ…ข. ๊ตญ์„ ๋Œ€๋ฆฌ์ธ ์ œ๋„ ๋„์ž…์„ ํ†ตํ•œ ์ž…๋ฒ• ์ง€์› ๋ฐ ๋น„์šฉ ๊ณต๊ณต ์ง€์› 91 1. ์ž…๋ฒ• ์ง€์›์˜ ํ•„์š”์„ฑ ๋ฐ ์ฃผ์˜์  91 2. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ตญ์„ ๋Œ€๋ฆฌ์ธ ์ œ๋„ ๋„์ž…์˜ ํ•„์š”์„ฑ 91 3. ๋น„์šฉ ๊ณต๊ณต ์ง€์› 92 โ…ฃ. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด๋ณ„ ์ฐจ๋ณ„ํ™” ๋ฐ ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์˜ ๊ถŒํ•œ ๊ฐ•ํ™” 92 1. ์ง€๋ฐฉ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด๋ณ„ ์ž์œจ์„ฑ ๋ถ€์—ฌ 92 2. ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์˜ ๊ถŒํ•œ ๊ฐ•ํ™” 94 3. ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์ž์น˜๋‹จ์ฒด ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ์˜ ์ตœ์†Œํˆฌํ‘œ์œจ ํ์ง€ 94 ์ œ4์ ˆ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™” ์ฃผ์ฒด๋กœ์„œ์˜ ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น 96 โ… . ํ•œ๊ตญ ์ •๋‹น์ •์น˜์˜ ๋ฌธ์ œ์  96 1. ์ •๋‹น์กฐ์ง๊ณผ ์ •๋‹น์ฒด๊ณ„ 96 2. ํ•œ๊ตญ ์ •๋‹น์ฒด๊ณ„์˜ ์—ญ์‚ฌ์„ฑ๊ณผ ์ง€์—ญ์ฃผ์˜์˜ ๋ฌธ์ œ 98 โ…ก. ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น ํ—ˆ์šฉ์˜ ๊ธฐ๋Œ€ํšจ๊ณผ 99 1. ์ •๋‹น์ฒด๊ณ„ ๊ฐœํŽธ์˜ ๊ณ„๊ธฐ ์กฐ์„ฑ 99 1) ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น์˜ ์˜์˜์™€ ํ•„์š”์„ฑ 99 2) ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น ๊ด€๋ จ ์‹œ๋ฏผ๋‹จ์ฒด๋“ค์˜ ์ตœ๊ทผ ๋Œ€์‘ 102 2. ๊ธฐ์ดˆ์˜์› ์ •๋‹น๊ณต์ฒœ์˜ ๋”œ๋ ˆ๋งˆ ํ•ด๊ฒฐ์— ๊ธฐ์—ฌ 104 โ…ข. ํ˜„ํ–‰ ์ •๋‹น๋ฒ•์ƒ ์ •๋‹น์„ค๋ฆฝ์กฐํ•ญ์˜ ๋ฌธ์ œ์  ๋ฐ ๊ฐœ์ •๋ฐฉํ–ฅ 108 1. ์ •๋‹น๋ฒ•์ƒ ์ •๋‹น์„ค๋ฆฝ์กฐํ•ญ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํ—Œ๋ฒ•์žฌํŒ์†Œ์˜ ์ž…์žฅ 108 2. ํŒ๋ก€์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋น„ํŒ์  ๊ฒ€ํ†  108 1) ๋ชฉ์ ์˜ ์ •๋‹น์„ฑ 109 2) ์ˆ˜๋‹จ์˜ ์ ํ•ฉ์„ฑ 112 3) ์นจํ•ด์˜ ์ตœ์†Œ์„ฑ 112 4) ๋ฒ•์ต์˜ ๊ท ํ˜•์„ฑ 112 3. ์ •๋‹น์„ค๋ฆฝ์กฐํ•ญ ๊ฐœ์ •์•ˆ ๋ฐœ์˜์ฒญ์›์˜ ๊ฒฝ๊ณผ ๋ฐ ํ˜„ํ™ฉ 113 1) 18๋Œ€-21๋Œ€ ๊ตญํšŒ์˜ ์ •๋‹น๋ฒ• ์ผ๋ถ€๊ฐœ์ •๋ฒ•๋ฅ ์•ˆ 113 2) ์ฒญ์› ๋ฐ ์ •์ฑ…์ œ์•ˆ 114 4. ์ •๋‹น์„ค๋ฆฝ์š”๊ฑด์˜ ๊ฐœ์ •๋ฐฉํ–ฅ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ฒ€ํ†  114 โ…ฃ. ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ œ๋„์™€ ์ง€์—ญ์ •๋‹น 116 ์ œ4์žฅ ๊ฒฐ๋ก  119 ์ฐธ๊ณ ๋ฌธํ—Œ 124 Abstract 134 ํ‘œ [ํ‘œ1] ์—ฐ๋„๋ณ„ ์กฐ๋ก€๋ฐœ์˜์ฃผ์ฒด(๋‹จ์ฒด์žฅ/์˜์›) ๋น„์œจ ๋น„๊ต 24 [ํ‘œ2] ๊ด‘์—ญ์˜ํšŒ ์˜์› 1์ธ๋‹น ์กฐ๋ก€ ์ œ๊ฐœ์ • ๊ฑด์ˆ˜ 25 [ํ‘œ3] ์ง์ ‘๋ฏผ์ฃผ์ฃผ์˜์˜ ํ˜‘์˜์˜ ์ •์˜ 44 [ํ‘œ4] ๋ฏธ๊ตญ์˜ ์ฃผ๋ณ„ ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ์ œ๋„ 55 [ํ‘œ5] ์ฃผ๋ฏผ์กฐ๋ก€์ œ์ •๊ฐœํ์ฒญ๊ตฌ ํ˜„ํ™ฉ(2000๋…„-2021๋…„) 68 [ํ‘œ6] ์ผ๋ฐ˜์  ๋ฒ•๋ฅ ์˜ ์ž…๋ฒ•๊ณผ์ •๋ณ„ ์ค‘์š”์„ฑ ์ธ์‹๋„ 70 [ํ‘œ7] ์ฃผ๋ฏผ๋ฐœ์•ˆ๊ณผ ์ฃผ๋ฏผํˆฌํ‘œ ๊ด€๋ จ ์šฉ์–ด ๋น„๊ต 88์„

    Immunological Characteristics of Hyperprogressive Disease in Patients with Non-small Cell Lung Cancer Treated with Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 Abs

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    Hyperprogressive disease (HPD) is a distinct pattern of progression characterized by acceleration of tumor growth after treatment with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 Abs. However, the immunological characteristics have not been fully elucidated in patients with HPD. We prospectively recruited patients with metastatic non-small cell lung cancer treated with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 Abs between April 2015 and April 2018, and collected peripheral blood before treatment and 7-days post-treatment. HPD was defined as โ‰ฅ2-fold increase in both tumor growth kinetics and tumor growth rate between pre-treatment and post-treatment. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were analyzed by multi-color flow cytometry to phenotype the immune cells. Of 115 patients, 19 (16.5%) developed HPD, 52 experienced durable clinical benefit (DCB; partial response or stable disease โ‰ฅ6 months), and 44 experienced non-hyperprogressive progression (NHPD). Patients with HPD had significantly lower progression-free survival (p<0.001) and overall survival (p<0.001). When peripheral blood immune cells were examined, the pre-treatment frequency of CD39+ cells among CD8+ T cells was significantly higher in patients with HPD compared to those with NHPD, although it showed borderline significance to predict HPD. Other parameters regarding regulatory T cells or myeloid derived suppressor cells did not significantly differ among patient groups. Our findings suggest high pre-treatment frequency of CD39+CD8+ T cells might be a characteristic of HPD. Further investigations in a larger cohort are needed to confirm our results and better delineate the immune landscape of HPD.ope

    PD-1-Expressing SARS-CoV-2-Specific CD8 + T Cells Are Not Exhausted, but Functional in Patients with COVID-19

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    Memory T cell responses have been demonstrated in COVID-19 convalescents, but ex vivo phenotypes of SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells have been unclear. We detected SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ T cells by MHC class I multimer staining and examined their phenotypes and functions in acute and convalescent COVID-19. Multimer+ cells exhibited early differentiated effector-memory phenotypes in the early convalescent phase. The frequency of stem-like memory cells was increased among multimer+ cells in the late convalescent phase. Cytokine secretion assays combined with MHC class I multimer staining revealed that the proportion of interferon-ฮณ (IFN-ฮณ)-producing cells was significantly lower among SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ T cells than those specific to influenza A virus. Importantly, the proportion of IFN-ฮณ-producing cells was higher in PD-1+ cells than PD-1- cells among multimer+ cells, indicating that PD-1-expressing, SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ T cells are not exhausted, but functional. Our current findings provide information for understanding of SARS-CoV-2-specific CD8+ T cells elicited by infection or vaccination.ope

    Expression of Fas ligand in human cancer cell lines

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    ์˜ํ•™๊ณผ/์„์‚ฌ[ํ•œ๊ธ€] Fas ligand(FasL)๋Š” tumor necrosis factor(TNF) family์— ์†ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ถ„์ž๋กœ์„œ ์ฃผ๋กœ ํ™œ์„ฑํ™”๋œ T ๋ฆผํ”„๊ตฌ์˜ ํ‘œ๋ฉด์— ๋ฐœํ˜„๋˜์–ด Fas๋ฅผ ๋ฐœํ˜„ํ•˜๋Š” ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ apoptosis๊ฐ€ ์ผ์–ด๋‚˜๋„๋ก ์œ ๋„ํ•˜๋Š” ๊ธฐ๋Šฅ์„ ํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ๋ฉด์—ญํŠน๊ถŒ(immune-privilege) ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ๋„ ๋ฐœํ˜„๋˜์–ด, ์ด๋“ค ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ T ๋ฆผํ”„๊ตฌ์˜ apoptosis๋ฅผ ์œ ๋„์‹œ์ผœ ๋ฉด์—ญํŠน๊ถŒ ์ƒํƒœ๋ฅผ ์œ ์ง€ํ•˜๋Š”๋ฐ ๊ด€์—ฌํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, ์•”์„ธํฌ์—์„œ ๋ฐœํ˜„๋˜๋Š” FasL๋Š” T ๋ฆผํ”„๊ตฌ์˜ apoptosis๋ฅผ ์œ ๋„ํ•˜์—ฌ, ์•”์„ธํฌ๊ฐ€ T ๋ฆผํ”„๊ตฌ์˜ ์„ธํฌ๋…์„ฑ ์ž‘์šฉ์„ ํšŒํ”ผํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฐ€์„ค์ด ์ œ์‹œ๋˜์—ˆ๊ณ , ์ด์™€ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋“ค์ด ์ง„ํ–‰๋˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด์— ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ๊ฐ„์•”, ๋Œ€์žฅ์•”, ์œ„์•” ๋“ฑ์˜ ์‚ฌ๋žŒ ์•”์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์—์„œ FasL๊ฐ€ ๋ฐœํ˜„๋˜๋Š”์ง€ ์‚ดํŽด๋ณด๊ณ , ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ FasL๊ฐ€ Fas๋ฅผ ๋ฐœํ˜„ํ•˜๋Š” ์„ธํฌ์˜ apoptosis๋ฅผ ์œ ๋„ํ•˜๋Š”์ง€ ํ‰๊ฐ€ํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋˜, ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์—์„œ Bํ˜• ๊ฐ„์—ผ ๋ฐ”์ด๋Ÿฌ์Šค์— ์˜ํ•œ FasL ๋ฐœํ˜„ ์œ ๋„๋ฅผ ์กฐ์‚ฌํ•˜๊ณ , ์‹ค์ œ ๊ฐ„์•” ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ FasL ๋ฐœํ˜„์—ฌ๋ถ€๋ฅผ ์•Œ์•„๋ณด์•˜๋‹ค. ์ด๋ฅผ ์œ„ํ•ด ๊ฐ„์•”, ๋Œ€์žฅ์•”, ์œ„์•” ๋“ฑ์˜ ์‚ฌ๋žŒ ์•”์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์—์„œ ์—ญ์ „์‚ฌ ์ค‘ํ•ฉํšจ์†Œ ์—ฐ์‡„๋ฐ˜์‘์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ FasL transcript๋ฅผ ๊ฒ€์ƒ‰ํ•ด ๋ณธ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, Hep G2.2.15, SNU-354 ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์™€ COLO 201, COLO 205 ๋Œ€์žฅ์•” ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์—์„œ FasL๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ•ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋ฐœํ˜„๋จ์„ ๊ด€์ฐฐํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜, Hep G2.2.15 ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ ๋ฉด์—ญํ˜•๊ด‘์—ผ์ƒ‰์„ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ FasL ๋‹จ๋ฐฑ์ด ๋ฐœํ˜„๋จ์„ ํ™•์ธํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๊ณ , RNase protection assay์™€ ๋ฉด์—ญํ˜•๊ด‘์—ผ์ƒ‰์œผ๋กœ Fas์™€ Fas ๊ด€๋ จ ์œ ์ „์ž ๋ฐœํ˜„์„ ๊ด€์ฐฐํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, Hep G2์— ๋น„ํ•˜์—ฌ Hep G2.2.15์—์„œ Fas์™€ FADD์˜ ๋ฐœํ˜„์ด ์ €ํ•˜๋˜ ์–ด ์žˆ์Œ์„ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. FasL๋ฅผ ๊ฐ•ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋ฐœํ˜„ํ•˜๋Š” HepG2.2.15 ์„ธํฌ์™€ Fas๋ฅผ ์ž˜ ๋ฐœํ˜„ํ•˜๋Š” T ์„ธํฌ ๋ฐฑํ˜ˆ๋ณ‘ ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์ธ MOLT-4๋ฅผ ํ•จ๊ป˜ ๋ฐฐ์–‘ํ•˜์—ฌ, Hep G2.2.15 ์„ธํฌ๊ฐ€ ๋ฐœํ˜„ํ•˜๋Š” FasL๊ฐ€ Fas๋ฅผ ๋ฐœํ˜„ํ•˜๋Š” ์„ธํฌ์˜ apoptosis๋ฅผ ์œ ๋„ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋Š”์ง€๋ฅผ coculture DNA fragmentation assay๋ฅผ ์ด์šฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์•Œ์•„๋ณด์•˜๋‹ค. ๊ทธ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, Hep G2.2.15 ์„ธํฌ์— ์˜ํ•ด MOLT-4 ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ apoptosis๊ฐ€ ์ผ์–ด๋‚จ์„ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๊ณ , ์ด๋•Œ Fas๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•œ apoptosis๋ฅผ ์–ต์ œํ•˜๋Š” anti-Fas ํ•ญ์ฒด, ZB4, ๋ฅผ ์ฒจ๊ฐ€ํ•˜์—ฌ MOLT-4 ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ apoptosis ์ •๋„๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ์†Œ๋จ์„ ๊ด€์ฐฐํ•จ์œผ๋กœ์จ Hep G2.2.15 ์„ธํฌ์— ์˜ํ•œ MOLT-4 ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ์˜ apoptosis๊ฐ€ Fas/FasL ๋ถ„์ž๋ฅผ ๋งค๊ฐœํ•˜์—ฌ ์ผ์–ด๋‚จ์„ ์ฆ๋ช…ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์—์„œ FasL ๋ฐœํ˜„์— Bํ˜• ๊ฐ„์—ผ ๋ฐ”์ด๋Ÿฌ์Šค ๋ณต์ œ๋‚˜ ์œ ์ „์ž ์‚ฐ๋ฌผ์ด ์–ด๋– ํ•œ ์—ญํ• ์„ ํ•˜๋Š”์ง€ ์•Œ์•„๋ณด๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด PLC/PRF/5 ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์— Bํ˜• ๊ฐ„์—ผ ๋ฐ”์ด๋Ÿฌ์Šค ์œ ์ „์ž๋‚˜ HB^^x ์œ ์ „์ž ๋ฅผ ํ˜•์งˆ ๋„์ž…์‹œํ‚จ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, ์ด๋“ค ์œ ์ „์ž์— ์˜ํ•ด FasL ๋ฐœํ˜„์ด ์œ ๋„๋จ์„ ๋ณด์•˜๋‹ค ๋˜ํ•œ, RNase protection assay๋กœ ๊ฐ„์•” ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ์˜ FasL ๋ฐœํ˜„์„ ์กฐ์‚ฌํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, 1๊ฐœ ์กฐ์ง์—์„œ๋งŒ FasL ๋ฐœํ˜„์„ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด์ƒ์˜ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋กœ ๋ฏธ๋ฃจ์–ด, ์ผ๋ถ€ ์•”์„ธํฌ๋Š” FasL๋ฅผ ๋ฐœํ˜„ํ•˜๋ฉฐ FasL๋ฅผ ๋ฐœํ˜„ํ•˜๋Š” ์•”์„ธํฌ๋Š” Fas๋ฅผ ๋ฐœํ˜„ํ•˜๋Š” T ๋ฆผํ”„๊ตฌ์˜ apoptosis๋ฅผ ์œ ๋ฐœํ•˜์—ฌ ์ˆ™์ฃผ์˜ ์•”์„ธํฌ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋ฉด์—ญ์ž‘์šฉ์„ ํšŒํ”ผํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์„ ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๊ธฐ๋Œ€ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๊ณ , Bํ˜• ๊ฐ„์—ผ ๋ฐ”์ด๋Ÿฌ์Šค ์œ ์ „์ž ๋˜๋Š” HB^^x ์œ ์ „์ž์— ์˜ํ•ด FasL์˜ ๋ฐœํ˜„์ด ์œ ๋„๋  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Œ์„ ๋ณด์•˜๋‹ค. [์˜๋ฌธ] Fas ligand(FasL) which belongs to tumor necrosis factor(TNF) family and is mainly expressed on the surface of activated T lymphocytes, induces apoptosis of Fas-bearing cells. FasL is also expressed in immune privilege sites and induces apoptosis of T lymphocytes, therefore it plays a role in maintenance of immune privilege status. Recently, it has been postulated that tumor cells expressing FasL could evade immune-surveillance by inducing apoptosis in tumor infiltrating T lymphocytes expressing Fas. In this study, FasL expression was investigated in 13 human hepatoma, 6 colon cancer, and 3 gastric cancer cell lines and apoptosis of Fas-bearing cells was evaluated through coculture with tumor cells expressing FasL. Strong FasL transcripts were detected by RT-PCR in Hep G2.2.15, SNU-354 hepatoma cell lines and COLO 201, COLO 205 colon cancer cell lines. Cell surface expression of FasL on the Hep G2.2.15 was detected by immunofluorescence. Expressions of Fas and Fas-related genes were also determined by RNase protection assay. Fas and FADD expressions in the Hep G2.2.15 were lower than those in the Hep G2. To determine the biological activity of FasL, Hep G2.2.15 was cocultured with MOLT-4. Hep G2.2.15 induced apoptosis in MOLT-4 and this was inhibited by the antagonistic anti-Fas antibody, ZB4. For the further analysis of the role of hepatitis B virus(HBV) or HBx in the induction of FasL, PLC/PRF/5 cells were transiently transfected with HBV genome or HBx, and FasL transcripts were determined. In the PLC/PRF/5 cells transfected with HBV genome or HBx, FasL expression was detected by RT-PCR. FasL expression was also investigated in 15 hepatoma tissues, and only 1 hepatoma tissue showed FasL transcripts. These data show that tumor cells expressing FasL could induce apoptosis of Fas-bearing T lymphocytes and thereby evade immune-surveillance and HBx might play a role in the induction of FasL in hepatoma cells.restrictio

    Effects of interferon-ฮณ on the apoptosis of human hepatoma cells.

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    ์˜ํ•™๊ณผ/๋ฐ•์‚ฌ[ํ•œ๊ธ€] ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ๋ฅผ ๋น„๋กฏํ•œ ๋งŽ์€ ์•”์„ธํฌ๋“ค์€ Fas-mediated apoptosis์— ์ €ํ•ญ์„ฑ์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ด๋Š” ๊ฒฝํ–ฅ์ด ์žˆ์Œ์ด ์ž˜ ์•Œ๋ ค์ ธ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜, interferon-ฮณ (IFN-ฮณ)์— ์˜ํ•ด ๋งŽ์€ ์•”์„ธํฌ๋“ค์€ Fas-mediated apoptosis์— ๊ฐ์ˆ˜์„ฑ์„ ๋ ๊ฒŒ ๋œ๋‹ค. IFN-ฮณ๊ฐ€ ์•”์„ธํฌ์—์„œ Fas-mediated apoptosis๋ฅผ ์ฆ๊ฐ€์‹œํ‚ค๋Š” ๊ธฐ์ „์œผ๋กœ๋Š” ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ฐ€ ์ œ์‹œ๋˜์—ˆ์œผ๋‚˜, ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ๊ทธ ์ •ํ™•ํ•œ ๊ธฐ์ „์ด ๊ทœ๋ช…๋œ ๋ฐ” ์—†๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ, ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์—์„œ๋Š” IFN-ฮณ๊ฐ€ ์‚ฌ๋žŒ ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์˜ Fas-mediated apoptosis์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ๊ณผ ๊ทธ ๊ธฐ์ „์„ ์•Œ์•„๋ณด์•˜๋‹ค. IFN-ฮณ ์ „์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๊ณ  Fas ์ž๊ทน์„ ์ฃผ์—ˆ์„ ๋•Œ๋Š” ์‹คํ—˜์— ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•œ 13 ๊ฐ€์ง€ ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ ๋ชจ๋‘ Fas-mediated apoptosis์— ์ €ํ•ญ์„ฑ์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ด์—ˆ์œผ๋‚˜, IFN-ฮณ ์ „์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ ํ›„์—๋Š” 3 ๊ฐ€์ง€ ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ(SNU-354, SNU-387, SNU-423)๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ์ˆ˜์„ฑ์„ ๋ณด์˜€๋‹ค. IFN-ฮณ๊ฐ€ ์ผ๋ถ€ ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์—์„œ Fas-mediated apoptosis๋ฅผ ์ฆ๊ฐ€์‹œํ‚จ ๊ธฐ์ „์„ ์•Œ์•„๋ณด๊ธฐ ์œ„ํ•ด, IFN-ฮณ๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ apoptosis์™€ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ์œ ์ „์ž์˜ ๋ฐœํ˜„์— ๋ฏธ์น˜๋Š” ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์กฐ์‚ฌํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ทธ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, IFN-ฮณ๋Š” ๋งŽ์€ ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ์—์„œ Fas, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), caspase-1์˜ mRNA ๋ฐœํ˜„์„ ์ฆ๊ฐ€์‹œ์ผฐ๊ณ , ์„ธํฌํ‘œ๋ฉด Fas ๋ฐœํ˜„๋„ ์ฆ๊ฐ€์‹œ์ผฐ๋‹ค. ์ด ์ค‘์—์„œ๋„ ํŠนํžˆ ์„ธํฌํ‘œ๋ฉด Fas ๋ฐœํ˜„์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋Š” IFN-ฮณ ์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ ํ›„์˜ Fas-mediated apoptosis์— ๋Œ€ ํ•œ ๊ฐ์ˆ˜์„ฑ์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€์™€ ๊ฐ•ํ•œ ์—ฐ๊ด€ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๋ณด์—ฌ, IFN-ฮณ์— ์˜ํ•œ ์„ธํฌํ‘œ๋ฉด Fas ๋ฐœํ˜„์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๊ฐ€ ์ผ๋ถ€ ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ ๋ณด์—ฌ์ง€๋Š” IFN-ฮณ ์ „์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ์— ์˜ํ•œ Fas-mediated apoptosis ์ฆ๊ฐ€์˜ ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ์›์ธ์ด๋ผ๊ณ  ์ƒ๊ฐํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. ํ•œํŽธ, ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์ฃผ ์ค‘์—์„œ SNU-368 ์„ธํฌ๋Š” IFN-ฮณ ์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ ํ›„์— Fas ์ž๊ทน ์—†์ด๋„ ์„ธํฌ์‚ฌ๊ฐ€ ์ผ์–ด๋‚จ์„ ๊ด€์ฐฐํ•˜์—ฌ, ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์„ธํฌ์‚ฌ์˜ ํŠน์„ฑ๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ „์„ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์šฐ์„ , IFN-ฮณ ์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ ํ›„์— SNU-368 ์„ธํฌ์˜ ์„ธํฌ์‚ฌ๊ฐ€ ์ผ์–ด๋‚  ๋•Œ caspase-3 ํ™œ์„ฑ์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๊ฐ€ ๊ด€์ฐฐ๋˜์–ด, ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์„ธํฌ์‚ฌ๋Š” apoptosis์— ์˜ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ์ƒ๊ฐํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, SNU-368 ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ IFN-ฮณ ์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ ํ›„์— apoptosis์™€ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ์œ ์ „์ž์˜ ๋ฐœํ˜„ ๋ณ€ํ™”๋ฅผ ์กฐ์‚ฌํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, Fas, TRAIL, caspase-1์˜ mRNA ๋ฐœํ˜„์ด ๊ฐ•ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ , SNU-368 ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ TRAIL ์ˆ˜์šฉ์ฒด์˜ mRNA ๋ฐœํ˜„์„ ์กฐ์‚ฌํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, DR4์™€ DR5๋Š” ๊ธฐ๋ณธ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ฐ•ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋ฐœํ˜„๋˜๊ณ  IFN-ฮณ ์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ ํ›„์—๋„ ๊ทธ ๋ฐœํ˜„์— ๋ณ€ํ™”๊ฐ€ ์—†๋Š” ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด, decoy ์ˆ˜์šฉ์ฒด์ธ DcR1์€ IFN-ฮณ ์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ ์ „์ด๋‚˜ ํ›„์—๋„ ๋ฐœํ˜„๋˜์ง€ ์•Š์•˜๊ณ , DcR2๋Š” ๊ธฐ๋ณธ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๋ฐœํ˜„๋˜๋‚˜ IFN-ฮณ ์ฒ˜๋ฆฌ์— ์˜ํ•ด ๊ทธ ๋ฐœํ˜„์ด ๊ฐ์†Œ๋˜์—ˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋กœ, IFN-ฮณ์— ์˜ํ•œ SNU-368 ์„ธํฌ์˜ apoptosis๋Š” IFN-ฮณ์— ์˜ํ•ด ๋ฐœํ˜„์ด ์ฆ๊ฐ€๋œ TRAIL์— ์˜ํ•ด apoptosis๊ฐ€ ์ผ์–ด๋‚˜๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋ผ๋Š” ๊ฐ€์„ค์„ ์„ธ์šธ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๊ณ , ์ˆ˜์šฉ์„ฑ DR4-Fc ์œตํ•ฉ ๋‹จ๋ฐฑ์ด SNU-368 ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ IFN-ฮณ์— ์˜ํ•ด ์œ ๋„๋˜๋Š” apoptosis๋ฅผ ์–ต์ œํ•จ์„ ๊ด€์ฐฐํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ฐ€์„ค์„ ์ฆ๋ช…ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ, IFN-ฮณ ์ด์™ธ์˜ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ cytokine๋“ค๋„ ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์˜ Fas-mediated apoptosis์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์ฃผ๋Š”์ง€ ์•Œ์•„๋ณด์•˜๋‹ค. ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ interleukin-6 (IL-6)๊ณผ interleukin-8 (IL-8)์€ apoptosis๋ฅผ ์–ต์ œํ•˜๊ฑฐ๋‚˜ ์„ธํฌ์˜ ์ƒ์กด์„ ์ฆ๊ฐ€์‹œํ‚ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋ณด๊ณ ๋œ ๋ฐ” ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ, SNU-354์™€ SNU-368 ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ Fas-mediated apoptosis๋ฅผ ์œ ๋„ํ•  ๋•Œ IL-6์ด๋‚˜ IL-8์„ ์ฒ˜๋ฆฌํ•˜๊ณ  ๊ทธ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ์กฐ์‚ฌํ•œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, IL-6์ด๋‚˜ IL-8์€ SNU-354์™€ SNU-368 ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์˜ Fas-mediated apoptosis๋ฅผ ๊ฐ์†Œ์‹œํ‚ค๊ฑฐ๋‚˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€์‹œํ‚ค์ง€ ์•Š๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ฌ๋‹ค. ๊ฒฐ๋ก ์ ์œผ๋กœ, ๋ณธ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•˜์—ฌ ์ผ๋ถ€ ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ IFN-ฮณ๋Š” ์„ธํฌํ‘œ๋ฉด Fas ๋ฐœํ˜„์„ ์ฆ๊ฐ€์‹œํ‚ด์œผ๋กœ์จ Fas-mediated apoptosis์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ฐ์ˆ˜์„ฑ์„ ๋†’์ผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์Œ์„ ์•Œ์•˜๊ณ , ์–ด๋–ค ๊ฐ„์•” ์„ธํฌ์—์„œ๋Š” ๋ถ€์ˆ˜์ ์ธ ์ž๊ทน ์—†์ด IFN-ฮณ๋งŒ์œผ๋กœ๋„ apoptosis๊ฐ€ ์œ ๋„๋˜๋ฉฐ ์ด๋Š” IFN-ฮณ์— ์˜ ํ•œ TRAIL ๋ฐœํ˜„์˜ ์ฆ๊ฐ€์™€ ์—ฐ๊ด€์ด ์žˆ์Œ์„ ์•Œ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ๋‹ค. [์˜๋ฌธ] Many tumors including hepatoma show resistance to Fas-mediated apoptosis, which is one of the effector mechanisms in the host's anti-tumor response, however, this resistance can be abolished by interferon-ฮณ (IFN-ฮณ) treatment. IFN-ฮณ may sensitize Fas-mediated apoptosis in several different ways, but the exact mechanism in hepatoma remains unclear. In this study, the effect of IFN-ฮณ on the susceptibility of hepatoma cell lines to Fas-mediated apoptosis was investigated. The effect of IFN-ฮณ on the expression of various apoptosis-related genes such as Fas-related genes, bcl-2 family genes, and caspase family genes was investigated. Although most of the cell lines constitutively expressed considerable amounts of Fas, all tested 13 cell lines were resistant to Fas-mediated cell death. Interestingly, when cells were pretreated with IFN-ฮณ, 3 cell lines (SNU-354, SNU-387 and SNU-423) became significantly susceptible to Fas-mediated apoptosis. IFN-ฮณ also increased the mRNA expression of Fas, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and caspase-1, and the surface expression of Fas in most of the hepatoma cells. More interestingly, the strongly sensitized 3 cell lines showed a potent increment of cell surface Fas expression after IFN-ฮณ treatment. These results suggest that a potent increment of surface Fas expression is a major sensitizing mechanism of IFN-ฮณ in the Fas-mediated apoptosis of hepatoma cells. Among hepatoma cell lines used in this study, SNU-368 cells underwent cell death by IFN-ฮณ treatment without Fas stimulation. Therefore, IFN-ฮณ-induced cell death of SNU-368 cells and its molecular mechanism were investigated in more detail. During IFN-ฮณ-induced cell death, increase of caspase-3 activity was observed. IFN-ฮณ also increased the mRNA expression of Fas, caspase-1 and TRAIL. In particular, IFN-ฮณ potently increased the mRNA expression of TRAIL. Among 4 TRAIL receptors, IFN-ฮณ did not change the mRNA expression of death-mediating TRAIL receptors, DR4 and DR5, which were constitutively expressed in both cell lines. In contrast, the decoy receptor, DcR1, was not expressed in SNU-368, and another decoy receptor, DcR2 was constitutively expressed, however, its expression level in SNU-368 was decreased by IFN-ฮณ. In addition, exogenous recombinant TRAIL reduced viability in SNU-368 cells. From these findings it was speculated that TRAIL up-regulation and the subsequent TRAIL-induced apoptosis serve as a mechanism of IFN-ฮณ-induced cell death in SNU-368 cells. To confirm this hypothesis, it was demonstrated that soluble DR4-Fc fusion protein, a TRAIL pathway inhibitor, inhibited IFN-ฮณ-induced cell death in SNU-368. These results demonstrated that IFN-ฮณ acts as an inducer of cell death through TRAIL-induced apoptosis. In this study, the effect of IL-6 and IL-8 on Fas-mediated apoptosis was also investigated in hepatoma cells. Contrast with IFN-ฮณ, IL-6 and IL-8 did not affect on the Fas-mediated apoptosis in SNU-354 and SNU-368 cells. In conclusion, IFN-ฮณ is able to make hepatoma cells susceptible to Fas-mediated apoptosis through the up-regulation of surface Fas, and induce apoptosis in some hepatoma cells through the up-regulation of TRAIL and subsequent activation of TRAIL-induced apoptosis.ope

    PD-1 blockade-unresponsive human tumor-infiltrating CD8 + T cells are marked by loss of CD28 expression and rescued by IL-15

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    Blockade of programmed death-1 (PD-1) reinvigorates exhausted CD8+ T cells, resulting in tumor regression in cancer patients. Recently, reinvigoration of exhausted CD8+ T cells following PD-1 blockade was shown to be CD28-dependent in mouse models. Herein, we examined the role of CD28 in anti-PD-1 antibody-induced human T cell reinvigoration using tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells (CD8+ TILs) obtained from non-small-cell lung cancer patients. Single-cell analysis demonstrated a distinct expression pattern of CD28 between mouse and human CD8+ TILs. Furthermore, we found that human CD28+CD8+ but not CD28-CD8+ TILs responded to PD-1 blockade irrespective of B7/CD28 blockade, indicating that CD28 costimulation in human CD8+ TILs is dispensable for PD-1 blockade-induced reinvigoration and that loss of CD28 expression serves as a marker of anti-PD-1 antibody-unresponsive CD8+ TILs. Transcriptionally and phenotypically, PD-1 blockade-unresponsive human CD28-PD-1+CD8+ TILs exhibited characteristics of terminally exhausted CD8+ T cells with low TCF1 expression. Notably, CD28-PD-1+CD8+ TILs had preserved machinery to respond to IL-15, and IL-15 treatment enhanced the proliferation of CD28-PD-1+CD8+ TILs as well as CD28+PD-1+CD8+ TILs. Taken together, these results show that loss of CD28 expression is a marker of PD-1 blockade-unresponsive human CD8+ TILs with a TCF1- signature and provide mechanistic insights into combining IL-15 with anti-PD-1 antibodies.restrictio

    Modulation of the Surface Expression of CD158 Killer Cell Ig-like Receptor by Interleukin-2 and Transforming Growth Factor-ฮฒ

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    Killer cell Ig-like receptor (KIR) binds to HLA class I molecules on the surface of target cells, and it confers inhibitory signals to NK cells. Although NK cytotoxicity can be affected by the change of the surface expression of KIR on NK cells, the effect of cytokines on the regulation of KIR expression has not been thoroughly investigated. Here in our study, we investigated the effect of several cytokines, including IL-2, TGF-ฮฒ, IFN-ฮณ, IL-12 and IL-18, on the surface expression of CD158 KIR, which binds to HLA-C, by the use of FACS analysis. In the isolated NK cells, IL-2 obviously increased the surface expression of CD158 KIR after 72 hr in vitro culture, and this was evidenced by the increased percentage of CD158+ NK cells and the increased mean fluorescence intensity of CD158 in CD158+ NK cells. In contrast, TGF-ฮฒ decreased the surface expression of CD158 KIR after 72 hr culture. However, IFN-ฮณ, IL-12 and IL-18 did not change the expression of CD158 KIR. The modulated expression of KIR by IL-2 and TGF-ฮฒ can be associated with the changed NK-cytotoxic target-discriminating ability of NK cells upon their exposure to IL-2 and TGF-ฮฒ.ope

    Dynamic changes in circulating PD-1(+)CD8(+)T lymphocytes for predicting treatment response to PD-1 blockade in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer

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    Background: The predictive value of immune monitoring with circulating CD8(+) T lymphocytes for treatment response to programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) inhibitors has not been explored in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), prompting us to investigate whether dynamic changes in PD-1(+) CD8(+) T lymphocytes have predictive value for durable clinical benefit (DCB) and survival after PD-1 blockade. Methods: Patients with recurrent and/or metastatic NSCLC treated with PD-1 inhibitors were enrolled (discovery cohort; n = 94). Peripheral blood was obtained immediately before and after one cycle of treatment with PD-1 blockade. Phenotyping of circulating CD8(+) T lymphocytes was conducted using multi-colour flow cytometry. Predictive values of dynamic changes in circulating PD-1(+) CD8(+) T lymphocytes during the first cycle were validated in an independent cohort (validation cohort; n = 54) of a prospective trial with a PD-1 inhibitor (NCT03486119). Results: Circulating PD-1(+) CD8(+) T lymphocytes were enriched with effector/memory populations with elevated expression of activation- and exhaustion-related markers. Reduction in the frequency of PD-1(+) cells among CD8(+) T lymphocytes after one cycle of treatment was associated with a higher probability of DCB and superior survival outcomes in the discovery cohort. Similar results were obtained in the analysis of tumour antigen NY-ESO-1-specific CD8(+) T lymphocytes and the validation cohort. Mechanistically, PD-1 molecule expression on CD8(+) T lymphocytes suppresses the effector functions of tumour antigen-specific CD8(+) T lymphocytes. Conclusions: Dynamic changes in circulating PD-1(+) CD8(+) T lymphocytes predict clinical, and survival benefit from PD-1 blockade treatment in NSCLC, providing a useful tool to identify patient subgroups who will optimally benefit from PD-1 inhibitors. (C) 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.11Nsciescopu
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