38 research outputs found

    Modulation of sugar transport for improved production of 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) in engineered Escherichia coli

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ (์„์‚ฌ)-- ์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต ๋Œ€ํ•™์› : ํ˜‘๋™๊ณผ์ • ๋ฐ”์ด์˜ค์—”์ง€๋‹ˆ์–ด๋ง์ „๊ณต, 2015. 8. ์„œ์ง„ํ˜ธ.Since xylose is the second abundunt sugar next to glucose in lignocellulosic biomass, production of various chemicals by using xylose as a carbon source is important. 3-Hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) was selected as a target material which is a precursor for various chemicals including acrylic acid, methyl acrylate and acrylamide. However, production of 3-HP from xylose showed glycerol accumulation during cultivation. Because the glycerol accumulation is known for inhibiting glycerol dehydratase which is a key enzyme in biosynthesis of 3-HP, alleviating glycerol accumulation is necessary to increase 3-HP production. The crr and ptsHI genes are known for encoding the PTS system. The phosphorylated CRR protein inhibits glycerol uptake when xylose remained in media by activating transcription of catabolite-repressed genes, and the phosphorylated HPR protein encoded by the ptsHI genes inhibits glycerol uptake by combining with a glycerol facilitator. Therefore, deletion of the crr and ptsHI genes involved in inhibition of glycerol uptake are necessary. Although deletion of the crr and ptsHI genes decreased glycerol accumulation by 30% relative to the control strain, this strategy also reduced xylose uptake rate and 3-HP concentration. As another way to resolve the glycerol accumulation problem, the genes for sugar transporters, galP, glpF and xylE, were expressed constitutively under the endogenous E. coli promoter. The galP gene encoding galactose permease and the glpF gene encoding glycerol facilitator are overexpressed when the glycerol is used as a sole carbon source. The xylE gene encoding xylose symporter is expected to enhance xylose uptake rate. As a result, the strain overexpressing the galP gene decreased glycerol accumulation by 55% compare with the control strain without reducing 3-HP concentration. The strain overexpressing the glpF and xylE increased glycerol accumulation by 25% and 58% relative to the control strain, respectively. To clarify this result, fermentation was carried out in R/5 medium containing 20 g/L xylose. The batch fermentation resulted in 4.01 g/L of 3-HP and 5.71 g/L of DCW without accumulation of glycerol. Expression of the galP gene which was identified by Western blotting seemed to redirect the carbon flux from glycerol to cell mass. To produce high concentration of 3-HP, a fed-batch fermentation using the galP overexpressed strain was carried out by feeding xylose continuously resulted in 39.1 g/L of 3-HP concentration and 0.40 g/L?h of 3-HP productivity without accumulation of glycerol.ABSTRACT i CONTENTS iv LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF FIGURES vii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 3-Hydroxypropionic acid 1 1.2 Hemicellulose and xylose 5 1.3 Metabolic pathway from xylose to 3-HP in E. coli 7 1.4 Phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase system 9 1.5 Transporter 10 1.6 Research objectives 11 Chapter 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 12 2.1 Strains and plasmids 12 2.2 DNA manipulation 14 2.2.1 Gene deletion 14 2.2.2 E. coli transporter expressing plasmid vector construction 16 2.3 E. coli gene deletion progress 16 2.3.1 Preparation of kanamycin resistance cassette 16 2.3.2 Expression of ฮป red recombinase in host strain 17 2.3.3 Kanamycin resistance cassette insert to expression strain 17 2.3.4 Recombination and adaptation 17 2.3.5 Elimination of kanamycin resistance cassette 18 2.4 E. coli transporter DNA manipulation and transformation 18 2.4.1 Preparation of DNA 18 2.4.2 Polymerase chain reaction 18 2.4.3 Digestion and ligation of DNA 19 2.4.4 Transformation 19 2.5 Culture conditions 20 2.5.1 Media 20 2.5.2 Flask culture 20 2.5.3 Batch fermentation in a bioreactor 21 2.5.4 Fed-batch fermentation in a bioreactor 21 2.6 Analytical methods 22 2.6.1 Dry cell weight 22 2.6.2 High performance liquid chromatography analysis 22 2.6.3 SDS-PAGE 23 2.6.4 Western blot 23 Chapter 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 25 3.1 Production of 3-HP from xylose 25 3.1.1 Problem of glycerol accumulation during culture 25 3.2 Catabolite derepression 28 3.2.1 Deletion of crr and ptsHI genes 28 3.2.2 Sequences of crr and ptsHI genes 28 3.2.3 Confirmation of gene deletion 31 3.2.4 Flask culture of PTS system deleted strains 31 3.3 Expression of E. coli transporters 36 3.3.1 Sequences of galP, glpF, xylE 36 3.3.2 Construction of E. coli transporter expression strain 41 3.3.3 Flask culture of transporter overexpression strain 43 3.3.4 Batch fermentation 43 3.4 Confirmation of galP expression 48 3.4.1 SDS-PAGE & western blot 48 3.4.2 Effect of galP expression on glycerol metabolism 51 3.5 Production of 3-HP from xylose in galP expression strain 53 3.5.1 Fed-batch fermentation using xylose feeding strategy 53 Chapter 4. CONCLUSIONS 55 Chapter 5. REFERENCES 56 Abstract (In Korean) / ๊ตญ๋ฌธ์ดˆ๋ก 60 List of Tables Table 1.1 3-HP based product opportunities 3 Table 1.2 Research of 3-HP production 4 Table 1.3 Polymer composition of lignocellulose 6 Table 2.1 List of strains and plasmids used in this study 13 Table 2.2 List of primers used in this study 15 Table 2.3 Composition of 14% polyacrylamide gel for SDS-PAGE 24 Table 2.4 Composition of buffers used in western blot 24 Table 3.1 Results of PTS deletion strain in flask culture 35 Table 3.2 Results of transporter expression strain in flask culture 45 Table 3.3 Results of batch culture in fermentor 47 Table 3.4 Results of fed-batch fermentation 54 List of Figures Figure 1.1 Structure of xylose 6 Figure 1.2 Biosynthesis pathway to 3-HP from xylose in recombinant E. coli 8 Figure 3.1 100 mL flask culture of ?gyp/pELDRR/pCPaGGRmut in R/5 medium containing 10 g/L xylose 27 Figure 3.2 Confirmation of crr and ptsHI gene disruption 33 Figure 3.3 Results of flask culture PTS deletion strain in xylose medium 34 Figure 3.4 Genetic maps of pCPaGGRmutgalP, pCPaGGRmutglpF and pCPaGGRmutxlyE 42 Figure 3.5 Results of flask culture transporter expression strain in xylose medium 44 Figure 3.6 Results of batch culture in xylose medium 46 Figure 3.7 SDS-PAGE analysis of pCPaGGRmut and pELDRR plasmid expression 49 Figure 3.8 Genetic map of pCPaGGRmutgalP introduced his tag 50 Figure 3.9 Western blot analysis of galP expression 50 Figure 3.10 Results of flask culture ?gyp/pCPaGGRmut and ?gyp/pCPaGGRmutgalP in xylose medium 52 Figure 3.11 Profile of fed-batch fermentation of ?gyp/pELDRR/pCPaGGRmutgalP 54Maste

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    ํ•™์œ„๋…ผ๋ฌธ (์„์‚ฌ)-- ์„œ์šธ๋Œ€ํ•™๊ต ๋Œ€ํ•™์› : ๊ตญ์–ด๊ตญ๋ฌธํ•™๊ณผ, 2016. 2. ์กฐํ˜„์„ค.๋ณธ๊ณ ๋Š” ใ€Œ์˜ค๋ˆ„์ด ํž˜๋‚ด๊ธฐใ€ ์„คํ™”๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•๊ณผ ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์œผ๋กœ ๋‚˜๋ˆ„์–ด ํ™”์ž๋“ค์˜ ์‹ค์ œ ๋‹ด๋ก ์—์„œ ์ƒ์‚ฐ๋˜๋Š” ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์˜๋ฏธ๋“ค์„ ๊ทœ๋ช…ํ•˜๊ณ ์ž ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ์„œ์‚ฌ ๋‚ด์šฉ๋ณด๋‹ค๋Š” ์‹ค์ œ ๋‹ด๋ก  ์ธต์œ„๋ฅผ ์ฃผ๋ชฉํ•˜์—ฌ ์„คํ™”๊ฐ€ ์ „์Šน ์ฃผ์ฒด์ธ ํ™”์ž๋“ค์— ์˜ํ•ด ์–ด๋–ป๊ฒŒ ํ‘œํ˜„๋˜๊ณ , ์ „์Šน๋˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š”์ง€ ์‚ดํŽด๋ณด๋Š” ๋ฐ ์—ฐ๊ตฌ์˜ ์ฃผ์•ˆ์ ์„ ๋‘์—ˆ๋‹ค. โ…ก์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ž๋ฃŒ๋ฅผ ๊ฐœ๊ด€ํ•˜๊ณ  ์œ ํ˜•์„ ์„ค์ •ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ใ€Œ์˜ค๋ˆ„์ด ํž˜๋‚ด๊ธฐใ€๋Š” ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ์™€ ๋ˆ„์ด๋ผ๋Š” ๋‘ โ€˜์—ฌ์„ฑโ€™์„ ์ฃผ์ฒด๋กœ ์‚ผ์œผ๋ฉด ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•๊ณผ ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์œผ๋กœ ๊ตฌ๋ถ„๋œ๋‹ค. ์ „์ž๋Š” ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ๊ฐ€ ๋ˆ„์ด๋ฅผ ๋ฐฉํ•ดํ•˜๋Š” ์œ ํ˜•์ด๊ณ  ํ›„์ž๋Š” ๋ˆ„์ด๊ฐ€ ์Šค์Šค๋กœ ํฌ์ƒํ•˜๋Š” ์œ ํ˜•์œผ๋กœ, ๋‘ ์—ฌ์„ฑ์˜ ๊ณต๋ชจ์™€ ํฌ์ƒ์ด ๋ˆ„์ด๋ฅผ ์ œ๊ฑฐํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ๊ฒฐ์ •์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ธฐ์—ฌํ•˜๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด ๊ณต๋ชจ์™€ ํฌ์ƒ์€ ์„œ์‚ฌ์ƒ์œผ๋กœ๋„ ์ค‘์š”ํ•œ ๋ถ„๊ธฐ์ ์ด ๋˜์ง€๋งŒ ์—ฐํ–‰์ƒ์œผ๋กœ๋„ ํ™”์ž๋“ค์˜ ๊ฐ€์žฅ ํฐ ๊ด€์‹ฌ์„ ๋„๋Š” ์‚ฌ๊ฑด์ด๋‹ค. ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•๊ณผ ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์€ ์ฃผ์š” ์ „์Šน ์ง€์—ญ, ์ „์Šน ํ˜•ํƒœ, ์ „์Šน ์ง‘๋‹จ์˜ ์„ฑ๋ณ„ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ ๋“ฑ์— ์žˆ์–ด์„œ๋„ ๋Œ€์กฐ๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ธ๋‹ค. ์ด๋ฅผ ๋ฐ”ํƒ•์œผ๋กœ โ…ข์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” โ€˜์ธ๋ฌผโ€™, โ€˜์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผโ€™, โ€˜ํ›„์ผ๋‹ด ํ˜น์€ ๊ด€๋ จ ์‚ฝํ™”โ€™์˜ ๋ถ„์„ ์ค€๊ฑฐ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•๊ณผ ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์˜ ํ˜•์ƒํ™” ๋ฐฉ์‹์„ ๋…ผ์˜ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋จผ์ € ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•์˜ ์ธ๋ฌผ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จํ•˜์—ฌ, ํ™”์ž์— ์˜ํ•ด ์ธ๋ฌผ์˜ ํ–‰์œ„๊ฐ€ ๋™๊ธฐํ™”๋˜๊ณ  ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ์™€ ๋ˆ„์ด์˜ ๋Œ€๋ฆฝ์ด ์ƒ์ƒํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์žฌํ˜„๋˜๋Š” ํ•œํŽธ ๋‚ด๋ฉด ์‹ฌ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ€ ์ œ์‹œ๋˜๋Š” ๋“ฑ ์ธ๋ฌผ๊ณผ ์‚ฌ๊ฑด์ด ๊ตฌ์ฒด์ ์œผ๋กœ ํ˜•์ƒํ™”๋˜๋Š” ์–‘์ƒ์„ ์ง€์ ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋•Œ ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ์˜ ํ–‰์œ„๊ฐ€ ๋™๊ธฐํ™”๋˜๊ณ  ๋‚ด๊ธฐ์˜ ๋ฐฐ๊ฒฝ์ด ์ œ์‹œ๋˜๋ฉด์„œ ์™ธ๋ถ€ ํ™˜๊ฒฝ๊ณผ์˜ ๊ฐˆ๋“ฑ์ด ์‹ฌํ™”๋˜๊ธฐ๋„ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•์—๋Š” ๋น„๊ต์  ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ๋“ค์ด ๋ถ„์‚ฐ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ œ์‹œ๋œ๋‹ค. ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•์€ ๊ฐ์ข… ์„ฑโ€คํƒ‘โ€ค๋‹ค๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๊ธฐ๋ณธ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ๋กœ ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ „์Šน๋˜์ง€๋งŒ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ๋Š” ๋ˆ„์ด์˜ ์ฃฝ์Œ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ ๋ฌด๋ค, ๋ฐ”์œ„ ๋“ฑ์˜ ์ถ”๊ฐ€ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ์ด ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚œ๋‹ค. ํ•œํŽธ ์ด๋ชฝํ•™, ์ž„์—ฐ ๋“ฑ์˜ ์—ญ์‚ฌ์ธ๋ฌผ์ด ์˜ค๋ผ๋น„๋กœ ๋“ฑ์žฅํ•˜๋ฉด์„œ โ€˜์ธ๋ฌผ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผโ€™์ด ๋˜๊ธฐ๋„ ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ์ธ๋ฌผ์˜ ์—ญ์‚ฌ์  ์‚ฌ์‹ค๊ณผ ํž˜๋‚ด๊ธฐ ์ด์•ผ๊ธฐ์˜ ๊ด€๋ จ์„ฑ์€ ๋น„๊ต์  ์•ฝํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚œ๋‹ค. ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰์œผ๋กœ ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•์€ ๋‚ด๊ธฐ ์ด์•ผ๊ธฐ ๋’ค์— ํ›„์ผ๋‹ด์ด ๋ถ™์–ด ๊ฐํŽธ์ด ํ™•์žฅ๋˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๊ฐ€ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•์˜ ํ›„์ผ๋‹ด๋“ค์€ ๋ˆ„์ด์˜ ์–ต์šธํ•œ ์ฃฝ์Œ, ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ์™€ ์˜ค๋ผ๋น„์˜ ๋น„๊ทน์  ์ตœํ›„ ๋“ฑ์„ ์ถ”๊ฐ€์ ์œผ๋กœ ์„ค๋ช…ํ•œ๋‹ค. ์ด๋“ค์€ ๋Œ€๋ถ€๋ถ„ ๋ณธ๋‹ด์— ๊ณ„๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๋‘๋ฉฐ ์ถ”๊ฐ€ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ๋“ค์„ ๋ณด๋‹ค ํšจ๊ณผ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ œ์‹œํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ๊ธฐ์—ฌํ•˜๊ธฐ๋„ ํ•œ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ์˜ค๋ผ๋น„์˜ ์—ญ์ ๋‹ด์€ ์˜คํžˆ๋ ค โ€˜์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ-์˜ค๋ผ๋น„(์•„๋“ค)โ€™ ๋ชจ์ž์ง€๊ฐ„ ํ˜น์€ โ€˜์˜ค๋ˆ„์ด ๊ฐ€์กฑ-๊ตญ๊ฐ€โ€™์˜ ๊ฐˆ๋“ฑ์„ ๋ถ€๊ฐ์‹œํ‚ค๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๊ฐ€ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์˜ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ, ๋จผ์ € ์ธ๋ฌผ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ์„ ์‚ดํŽด๋ณด๋ฉด ๋ชจ๋“  ๊ฐํŽธ์—์„œ ์˜ค๋ˆ„์ด๊ฐ€ โ€˜๋ˆ„๋‚˜์™€ ๋‚จ๋™์ƒโ€™์œผ๋กœ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚˜๋Š”๋ฐ ๋‘ ์‚ฌ๋žŒ์€ ์ฃผ๋กœ โ€˜ํž˜๊ณผ ์ง€ํ˜œ๊ฐ€ ์šฐ์›”ํ•œ ๋ˆ„๋‚˜-์˜ค๋งŒํ•˜๊ณ  ํญ๋ ฅ์ ์ธ ๋‚จ๋™์ƒโ€™์ด๋ผ๋Š” ๋Œ€์กฐ์  ๋ชจ์Šต์„ ๋ณด์ธ๋‹ค. ์ด๋•Œ ํ™”์ž๋“ค์˜ ๊ด€์‹ฌ์€ ์ฃผ๋กœ ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์— ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์˜ ๋ˆˆ๊ณผ ๋ชฉ์†Œ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ์ž‘์ค‘ ์ƒํ™ฉ์ด ๋ฌ˜์‚ฌโ€ค์ „๋‹ฌ๋˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๊ฐ€ ๋นˆ๋ฒˆํ•˜๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ๋‚จ๋™์ƒ์„ ์œ„ํ•ด ์Šค์Šค๋กœ ํŒจ๋ฐฐ๋ฅผ ์„ ํƒํ•œ ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์˜ ์„ ํƒ๊ณผ ๊ทธ์˜ ํ‡ด์žฅ ๋˜ํ•œ ๋‹น์—ฐ์‹œ๋œ๋‹ค. ๊ฐํŽธ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ๋Š” ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์˜ ์ฃฝ์Œ์ด ์ƒ๋žต๋˜๊ฑฐ๋‚˜ ํ™”์ž์˜ ๊ฐœ์ธ ํ•ด์„์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋ถ€์ •๋˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๋„ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์˜ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ์€ ์ธ๋ฌผ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ์— ๋Œ€ํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ตฌ์‹ฌ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ œ์‹œ๋œ๋‹ค. ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์€ ์ฃผ๋กœ ๊น€๋•๋ นโ€ค์ด๋ฐฉ์‹คโ€ค์ž„๊ฒฝ์—…โ€ค์ •์—ฌ๋ฆฝโ€ค์†กํŒ”์˜ ๋“ฑ์˜ ๋‚จ์„ฑ ์—ญ์‚ฌ ์ธ๋ฌผ๋“ค์„ ์ค‘์‹ฌ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ๋กœ ํ•˜์—ฌ ์ „์Šน๋˜๊ธฐ ๋•Œ๋ฌธ์ด๋‹ค. ํฅ๋ฏธ๋กœ์šด ์ ์€ ๋ณธ๋‹ด์—์„œ โ€˜์ž‘์ค‘ ์ธ๋ฌผโ€™๋กœ ํ˜•์ƒํ™”๋˜๋Š” ๋‚จ๋™์ƒ๊ณผ ์ธ๋ฌผ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ๋กœ์„œ ํ˜•์ƒํ™”๋˜๋Š” ์—ญ์‚ฌ์ธ๋ฌผ์˜ ์ด๋ฏธ์ง€๊ฐ€ ๊ท ์ผํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๋‹ค๋Š” ์ ์ด๋‹ค. ํ™”์ž๋“ค์€ โ€˜๋‚จ๋™์ƒโ€™์—๊ฒŒ๋Š” ๋ถ€์ •์ ์ธ ํƒœ๋„๋ฅผ ๋“œ๋Ÿฌ๋‚ด๋ฉด์„œ๋„ โ€˜๊น€๋•๋ นโ€™์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ์—ฐ๋ฏผ๊ณผ ์กด๊ฒฝ์˜ ํƒœ๋„๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ธ๋‹ค. ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์—๋„ ์ถ”๊ฐ€ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ์ด ์ œ์‹œ๋˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๊ฐ€ ์žˆ์œผ๋‚˜ ์—ญ์‚ฌ์ธ๋ฌผ์„ ๋ณด์กฐํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๊ฐ€ ๋Œ€๋ถ€๋ถ„์ด๋ฉฐ, ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์™€ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ ์ถ”๊ฐ€ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ์€ ๊ฑฐ์˜ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚˜์ง€ ์•Š๋Š”๋‹ค. ๋˜ ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์—์„œ๋Š” ์ฃผ๋กœ ๋‚จ๋™์ƒ ์ธ๋ฌผ๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ ์‚ฝํ™”๊ฐ€ ๋ณธ๋‹ด์˜ ์•žโ€ค๋’ค์— ๊ฒฐํ•ฉํ•˜์—ฌ ๊ฐํŽธ์„ ํ™•์žฅ์‹œํ‚ค๋Š” ์–‘์ƒ์ด ๊ด€์ฐฐ๋œ๋‹ค. ์‚ฝํ™”๋“ค์€ ์ธ๋ฌผ์„ ์žฌํ•ด์„ํ•˜๊ธฐ๋ณด๋‹ค๋Š” ์ธ๋ฌผ์˜ ๊ณ ์ •์  ํŠน์„ฑ์„ ์„ค๋ช…ํ•˜๋Š” ๋ฐ ์ถฉ์‹คํ•˜๋‹ค. ์‚ฝํ™”๋“ค์€ ๋ณธ๋‹ด๊ณผ์˜ ์ธ๊ณผ ๊ด€๊ณ„ ํ˜น์€ ๊ณ„๊ธฐ์„ฑ๋ณด๋‹ค๋Š” ์ธ๋ฌผ์ด์•ผ๊ธฐ ์ „์ฒด์˜ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ๋ฐฉ์‹์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฐ›๊ณ  ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ์ ์œผ๋กœ๋Š” ๋‚จ๋™์ƒ ์ธ๋ฌผ ์ค‘์‹ฌ์˜ ์ „์Šน ์ฒด๊ณ„๋ฅผ ์•ˆ์ •์ ์œผ๋กœ ์œ ์ง€ํ•˜๋Š” ์š”์†Œ๋กœ ๊ธฐ๋Šฅํ•œ๋‹ค. โ…ข์žฅ์˜ ํ˜•์ƒํ™” ๋ฐฉ์‹ ๋…ผ์˜๋ฅผ ๋ฐ”ํƒ•์œผ๋กœ โ…ฃ์žฅ์—์„œ๋Š” ์œ ํ˜•๋ณ„ ์ „์Šน ์˜๋ฏธ์™€ ์œ ํ˜• ๊ฐ„ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ๊ณ ์ฐฐํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จํ•˜์—ฌ ์šฐ์„  ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ์™€ ์ง€๋ฐฐ ์งˆ์„œ๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ˆ„์ด ์ œ๊ฑฐ๊ฐ€ ์ •๋‹นํ™”๋˜์ง€๋งŒ ๋™์‹œ์— ๊ทธ์— ๋ฐ˜๋ฐœํ•˜๋Š” ๊ท ์—ด์  ์ง€ํ–ฅ์ด ํ•จ๊ป˜ ๋ฐœ๊ฒฌ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋Œ€๋ฆฌ์ธ ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ  ๋‚จ์„ฑ ์ง€๋ฐฐ(๊ฐ€๋ถ€์žฅ์ œ) ์งˆ์„œ์™€ ๊ตญ๊ฐ€ ๊ถŒ๋ ฅ์— ์˜ํ•ด ๋ˆ„์ด์˜ ์ œ๊ฑฐ๋Š” ํšจ๊ณผ์ ์œผ๋กœ ์ •๋‹นํ™”๋œ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ๋ˆ„์ด์˜ ์ฃฝ์Œ์„ ์„์—ฐ์น˜ ์•Š์€ ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ ์—ฌ๊ธฐ๊ณ  ๊ทธ๋ฅผ ์—ฐ๋ฏผํ•˜๋Š” ํ™”์ž๋“ค์˜ ์ธ์‹์ด ๋ถ„๋ช…ํžˆ ํ™•์ธ๋œ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Š” ๋‚จ์„ฑ ์ง€๋ฐฐ ์งˆ์„œ์™€ ๊ตญ๊ฐ€ ๊ถŒ๋ ฅ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋ฐ˜ํ•ญ์ด ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚œ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋กœ ํ•ด์„๋˜๋ฉฐ, ๋ˆ„์ด์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์—ฐ๋ฏผ๊ณผ ๊ทผ์นœ ์‚ดํ•ด์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ธˆ๊ธฐ ์˜์‹ ๋“ฑ์ด ํ‘œ์ถœ๋œ ๊ฒƒ์œผ๋กœ๋„ ๋ณผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ โ€˜๊ท ์—ดโ€™์˜ ์ง•ํ›„๋Š” ๊ตฌ์ฒด์ ์œผ๋กœ ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ ๋ฐ ๋ˆ„์ด์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์—ฌ์„ฑ ํ™”์ž์˜ ์—ฐ๋ฏผ, ์‹คํŒจํ•œ ์˜ค๋ผ๋น„ ์žฅ์ˆ˜์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋ฐ˜๊ฐ ํ‘œ์ถœ, ๋ชจ์„ฑ์˜ ์ด์ƒ์„ฑ ํŒŒ๊ดด ๋“ฑ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋“œ๋Ÿฌ๋‚œ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ๊ท ์—ด์  ์ง€ํ–ฅ์ด ์™„์ „ํ•œ โ€˜ํƒˆ์ฃผโ€™๋กœ ์ด์–ด์ง€์ง€๋Š” ์•Š๋Š”๋‹ค. ๋ˆ„์ด์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํ™”์ž๋“ค์˜ ์—ฐ๋ฏผ์ด ๋“œ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜๊ธฐ๋Š” ํ•˜์ง€๋งŒ ์ด๊ฒƒ์ด ๋ˆ„์ด ์ œ๊ฑฐ๋ฅผ ์ •๋‹นํ™”ํ•˜๋Š” ์ง€๋ฐฐ ์งˆ์„œ์˜ ์™„์ „ํ•œ ์ „๋ณต์œผ๋กœ ๋‚˜์•„๊ฐ€์ง€๋Š” ๋ชปํ•œ๋‹ค. ๋˜ํ•œ ๋ˆ„์ด ์ œ๊ฑฐ์˜ ๊ทผ๋ณธ์  ๋ฐฐํ›„๊ฐ€ ๋˜๋Š” ๋‚จ์„ฑ ์ง€๋ฐฐ ์งˆ์„œ๋Š” ๊ตญ๊ฐ€ ๊ถŒ๋ ฅ์— ๋น„ํ•ด ๋ณด๋‹ค โ€˜์ž์—ฐ์ โ€™์ธ ์งˆ์„œ๋กœ ํ‘œํ˜„๋˜๋ฉฐ, ์—ฌ์„ฑ ํ™”์ž๋“ค์˜ ์—ฐ๋ฏผ ๋ฐ ๊ณต๊ฐ์—๋Š” ๊ฐ€๋ถ€์žฅ์ œ ๋‚ด ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ์™€ ๋ˆ„์ด๋ผ๋Š” ๋‘ ๊ฐ€์ง€ ์ •์ฒด์„ฑ ์ˆ˜ํ–‰์ด ์ฐฉ์ข…๋˜์–ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋‹ค์Œ์œผ๋กœ ํฌ์ƒํ˜•๊ณผ ๊ด€๋ จํ•ด์„œ๋Š” ์—ญ์‚ฌ์ธ๋ฌผ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๋ˆ„๋‚˜ ์ œ๊ฑฐ๊ฐ€ ์ •๋‹นํ™”๋˜๋ฉด์„œ๋„ ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ตด์ ˆ๋œ ์ด์ƒํ™”๊ฐ€ ์ด๋ฃจ์–ด์ง€๋Š” ์—ญ์„ค์ด ์ฃผ๋ชฉ๋œ๋‹ค. ๋‚จ๋™์ƒ์€ ๋ณธ๋‹ด์—์„œ๋Š” ๋น„๊ต์  ๋ถ€์ •์ ์ธ ์ธ๋ฌผ๋กœ ํ˜•์ƒํ™”๋จ์—๋„ ์ธ๋ฌผ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ๋กœ์„œ๋Š” ์ „์Šน์ž๋“ค๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ ์ง€์ง€๋ฅผ ๋ฐ›๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฐ๋ฐ ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์˜ ์ฃผ์š” ์—ญ์‚ฌ์ธ๋ฌผ๋“ค์€ ์–ต์šธํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์ฃฝ์—ˆ์ง€๋งŒ ์‹ค์ œ ๋ฐ˜์—ญ์„ ์ผ์œผํ‚จ ๊ฒƒ์€ ์•„๋‹ˆ๋ฉฐ ์‚ฌํ›„ ๊ตญ๊ฐ€๋กœ๋ถ€ํ„ฐ โ€˜์ง„์ •ํ•œ ์ถฉ์‹ โ€™์œผ๋กœ ์ธ์ •๋ฐ›์€ ์ด๋“ค์ด๋‹ค. ๋”ฐ๋ผ์„œ ์ด๋“ค์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ „์Šน๋‹ด๋‹น์ธต์˜ ์ง€์ง€๋Š” ์˜คํžˆ๋ ค ์ง€๋ฐฐ ์ฒด์ œ์— ์šฐํ˜ธ์ ์ผ ๊ฐ€๋Šฅ์„ฑ์ด ํฌ๋‹ค. ๋ณธ๊ณ ์—์„œ๋Š” ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ง€์ง€์— ์—ญ์‚ฌ์ธ๋ฌผ์„ โ€˜์–ต์šธํ•˜๊ฒŒ ์ฃฝ์ด์ง€ ์•Š์•˜์„โ€™ ๊ตญ๊ฐ€ ๊ถŒ๋ ฅ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ โ€˜ํ™˜์ƒโ€™์ด ๋ฐ˜์˜๋˜์–ด ์žˆ๋‹ค๊ณ  ๋ณด์•˜๋‹ค. ์•„์šธ๋Ÿฌ ์ด๋Ÿฌํ•œ ์ธ์‹์ด ํฌ์ƒํ˜• ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์— ์ ์šฉ๋  ๊ฒฝ์šฐ, โ€˜์‚ด์•„์„œ ๊น€๋•๋ น์„ ๋„์™€ ๊ทธ๋ฅผ ์ง„์ •ํ•œ ์˜์›…์œผ๋กœ ๋งŒ๋“ค์–ด ์ค„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์—ˆ์ง€๋งŒโ€™ โ€˜๊ฒฐ์ฝ” ๊น€๋•๋ น์„ ์ด๊ฒจ์„œ๋Š” ์•ˆ ๋˜๋Š”โ€™ ์—ญ์„ค์ด ํˆฌ์˜๋œ โ€˜์ด์ƒ์  ์—ฌ์„ฑ์ƒโ€™์„ ๋‚ณ๊ฒŒ ๋œ๋‹ค๊ณ  ํ•ด์„ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋งˆ์ง€๋ง‰์œผ๋กœ ใ€Œ์˜ค๋ˆ„์ด ํž˜๋‚ด๊ธฐใ€๋ผ๋Š” ํ•˜๋‚˜์˜ ์„คํ™” ์•ˆ์—์„œ ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•๊ณผ ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์ด ๋งบ๋Š” ๊ด€๊ณ„ ๋ฐ ์œ ํ˜•์˜ ๋ณ€๋ชจ์— ๋Œ€ํ•ด ์‚ดํˆ๋‹ค. ๋จผ์ € ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜• ๋ˆ„์ด์˜ โ€˜์ถ•์กฐโ€™๊ฐ€ ํฌ์ƒํ˜• ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์˜ โ€˜์ง์กฐโ€™๋กœ ๋ณ€ํ•œ ๊ฒƒ์„ ์ง€๋ฆฌ์‚ฐ ์„ ๋„์„ฑ๋ชจ/๋งˆ๊ณ ํ• ๋ฏธ์™€ ๋ฌด๊ฐ€ ใ€Œ์„ฑ์ฃผ๋ณธ๊ฐ€ใ€์˜ ํ™ฉ์šฐ์–‘์”จ ๋ถ€์ธ์˜ ์ „๋ณ€๊ณผ ์—ฐ๊ฒฐ์‹œ์ผœ ์ดํ•ดํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๋‚จํŽธ๊ณผ ์˜ท์˜ ์กด์žฌ๊ฐ€ ๋งˆ๊ณ ํ• ๋ฏธ์™€ ํ™ฉ์šฐ์–‘์”จ ๋ถ€์ธ์˜ ๋ณ€์‹ ๊ณผ ๋ฐ€์ ‘ํ•œ ๊ด€๋ จ์„ ๋งบ๋Š” ์ ์— ์ฐฉ์•ˆํ•˜์—ฌ ๋ˆ„์ด ํ˜•์ƒ์˜ ์ „๋ณ€์—๋„ ์—ญ์‚ฌ์  ๋‚จ์„ฑ ์˜์›… ์˜ค๋ผ๋น„์˜ ์กด์žฌ๊ฐ€ ๊ฒฐ์ •์ ์ธ ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์ณค๋‹ค๊ณ  ๋ณด์•˜๋‹ค. ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋‚˜ ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์˜ ํŒŒ์ƒ์— ์˜ํ–ฅ์„ ๋ฏธ์นœ ๊ฒƒ์€ ์—ญ์‚ฌ์ธ๋ฌผ์˜ ์กด์žฌ ์ž์ฒด๋ณด๋‹ค๋Š” ์• ๊ตญ ํ–‰์œ„์™€ ์–ต์šธํ•œ ์ฃฝ์Œ ๋“ฑ์„ ํ†ตํ•ด ๊ฐ•๋ ฅํ•œ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ ฅ์„ ๋ณด์œ ํ•˜๊ฒŒ ๋œ ์—ญ์‚ฌ์ธ๋ฌผ์˜ ์„ฑ๊ฒฉ์ด๋ผ๊ณ  ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. ์ด์™€ ๋งž๋ฌผ๋ ค โ€˜๊ณต๋ชจโ€™์™€ โ€˜ํฌ์ƒโ€™์˜ ์ฃผ์ฒด๊ฐ€ ๋˜๋Š” ๋‘ ์—ฌ์„ฑ ์ธ๋ฌผ, ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ์™€ ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ์‚ดํŽด๋ณด๋ฉด์„œ ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์— ์ด๋ฅด๋Ÿฌ ์—ฌ์„ฑ ์ธ๋ฌผ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๋‹ด๋ก ์ด ์ƒ๋‹น ๋ถ€๋ถ„ ๋‹จ์ผํ™”๋จ์„ ์ง€์ ํ•˜์˜€๋‹ค. ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜•์˜ ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ๋Š” ๋ˆ„์ด์˜ ๊ฐ„์ ‘์  ์‚ดํ•ด์ž๋‚˜ ๋‹ค๋ฆ„์—†์ง€๋งŒ ๋™์‹œ์— ์กด์žฌ ์ž์ฒด๊ฐ€ ์ง€๋ฐฐ ๋‹ด๋ก ์˜ ๊ท ์—ด์— ๊ธฐ์—ฌํ•˜๋Š” ์ธก๋ฉด์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค. ๋ฐ˜๋ฉด ํฌ์ƒํ˜•์—์„œ๋Š” ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ์˜ ์กด์žฌ ์ž์ฒด๊ฐ€ ์•„์˜ˆ ์‚ฌ๋ผ์ ธ ์žˆ๊ณ , ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์˜ ์ œ๊ฑฐ๋Š” ๋ณด๋‹ค ๋ฌด๋ฆฌ ์—†์ด ๊ธ์ •๋œ๋‹ค. ๋Œ€์‹  ํฌ์ƒํ˜• ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์—๋Š” ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜• ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ์˜ ๋ชจ์Šต์ด ์ƒ๋‹น ๋ถ€๋ถ„ ํก์ˆ˜๋˜์–ด ์žˆ์œผ๋ฉฐ, ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์˜ ํŒจ๋ฐฐ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ํ™”์ž๋“ค์˜ ์ธ์‹๋„ ํฐ ์ฐจ์ด๋ฅผ ๋ณด์ด์ง€ ์•Š๋Š”๋‹ค.I. ์„œ๋ก  1 II. ์ž๋ฃŒ์™€ ์œ ํ˜• 10 1. ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ์ž๋ฃŒ 10 1.1. ์—ฐ๊ตฌ ๋Œ€์ƒ ๋ฐ ์ž๋ฃŒ 10 1.2. ํ˜„์ง€ ์กฐ์‚ฌ 12 2. ์œ ํ˜• ๋ถ„๋ฅ˜ 15 2.1. ์—ฌ์„ฑ ์ธ๋ฌผ๊ณผ ์œ ํ˜• ์„ค์ • 15 2.2. ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜• 20 2.3. ํฌ์ƒํ˜• 25 III. ์œ ํ˜•๋ณ„ ํ˜•์ƒํ™” ๋ฐฉ์‹ 32 1. ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜• 33 1.1. ๋ˆ„์ด์™€ ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ ์ค‘์‹ฌ์˜ ์ธ๋ฌผ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ 33 1.2. ๋‹ค์–‘ํ•œ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ์˜ ๋ถ„์‚ฐ์  ์ œ์‹œ 48 1.3. ํ›„์ผ๋‹ด์„ ํ†ตํ•œ ๋ˆ„์ด ์„œ์‚ฌ์˜ ์—ฐ์žฅ 57 2. ํฌ์ƒํ˜• 69 2.1. ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์™€ ๋‚จ๋™์ƒ์˜ ๋Œ€์กฐ์  ์ธ๋ฌผ ๊ตฌ์„ฑ 69 2.2. ์—ญ์‚ฌ์ธ๋ฌผ ๊ด€๋ จ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฌผ์˜ ๊ตฌ์‹ฌ์  ์ œ์‹œ 77 2.3. ์‚ฝํ™”๋ฅผ ํ†ตํ•œ ์—ญ์‚ฌ์ธ๋ฌผ ์ค‘์‹ฌ์˜ ์ „์Šน 83 IV. ์œ ํ˜•๋ณ„ ์ „์Šน ์˜๋ฏธ์™€ ์œ ํ˜• ๊ฐ„ ๊ด€๊ณ„ 91 1. ๊ณต๋ชจํ˜• 92 1.1. ๋Œ€๋ฆฌ์ธ ์–ด๋จธ๋‹ˆ์™€ ์ง€๋ฐฐ ์งˆ์„œ 92 1.2. ์ง€๋ฐฐ ์งˆ์„œ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ๊ท ์—ด์  ์ง€ํ–ฅ 96 1.3. ๊ท ์—ด์˜ ํ•œ๊ณ„์™€ ๋‹ด๋ก ์˜ ์ฐฉ์ข… 104 2. ํฌ์ƒํ˜• 109 2.1. ๋‚จ๋™์ƒ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ด์ค‘์  ์ธ์‹ 109 2.2. ๋ˆ„๋‚˜์˜ ๊ตด์ ˆ๋œ ์ด์ƒํ™” 112 3. ์œ ํ˜• ๊ฐ„ ๊ด€๊ณ„์™€ ๋ณ€๋ชจ 121 3.1. ์ถ•์„ฑ ๋‹ด๋ก ์—์„œ ์ง์กฐ ๋‹ด๋ก ์œผ๋กœ 121 3.2. ์—ญ์‚ฌ์  ๋‚จ์„ฑ ์˜์›…์˜ ๊ฐœ์ž…๊ณผ ๋‹ด๋ก ์˜ ๋‹จ์ผํ™” 128 V. ๊ฒฐ๋ก  137 ์ฐธ๊ณ ๋ฌธํ—Œ 141 ๋ถ€๋ก 149 1. ๊ตฌ๋น„ ์ฑ„๋ก ์ž๋ฃŒ ๋ชฉ๋ก 149 2. ํ˜„์ง€ ์กฐ์‚ฌ ์ฑ„๋ก๋ณธ 160 ไธญๆ–‡ๆ‘˜่ฆ 188Maste
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