Study of Aspergillus oryzae fermentation extract on dairy cows in Taiwan

壹、中文摘要 本研究乃以in vitro 及in situ，並加以小型之青貯桶等做一系列之試驗，最後再以in vivo實際泌乳牛及瘤胃和十二指腸瘻管牛動物試驗加以印證，期獲得瞭解AFE(Aspergillus oryzae Fermentation Extract)之機制。試驗一之目的，期以in vitro試驗來瞭解AFE添加與否及不同來源，對台灣乳牛常用飼料原料在體外醱酵之影響。試驗共分為三組(1)對照組(2)商用AFE組(3)自製AFE組。每個處理分別以台灣乳牛常用之精料、芻料及副產物等飼料原料共22種做為培養基質來進行 in vitro培養，並於培養後測定培養液之pH值、氨態氮濃度、總揮發性脂肪酸濃度、個別總揮發性脂肪酸莫耳百分比，並測定殘留之乾物質、有機物、中洗纖維、酸洗纖維等含量以估計降解率。試驗結果顯示，商用AFE之澱粉酶及內切纖維素酶活性高於自製AFE約16.7及351倍，但自製AFE之蛋白酶活性約高於商用AFE產品59倍。降解率方面，精料中之蒸煮壓片玉米及小麥為添加AFE反應較佳之原料。添加商用AFE對青貯玉米、梯牧草、燕麥乾草、花生藤及狼尾草均有正面提升降解率之效果，但對於苜蓿乾草則有降低之趨勢。至於自製AFE對降解率提高之效果則不如商用AFE，但對於某些芻料亦有顯著之效果。整體而言，添加商用AFE對芻料纖維之降解率有提高之效果，特別是在中洗纖維最為明顯。瘤胃性狀方面，添加自製AFE對精料及芻料之總揮發性脂肪酸濃度有正面之效果，而在副產物方面則添加商用AFE有較佳之效果。至於其他揮發性脂肪酸莫耳百分比、氨態氮濃度、pH值及原蟲數，則添加AFE與否及來源均無一致性之趨勢。 試驗二之目的為評估添加AFE對台灣常用之精料、芻料及副產物in situ降解率之影響。試驗主要為測定添加AFE，對台灣當地乳牛業常用原料之乾物質、有機物、酸洗纖維及中洗纖維於瘤胃內之降解率。二頭裝置有瘤胃瘻管之荷蘭種乾乳牛，安排至二對二之crossover試驗設計二組中。試驗處理共分為二組(1)對照組(2) AFE組。AFE組為每日每頭牛餵給Amaferm® 3公克。研究結果顯示，添加AFE對台灣常用精料之影響並不一致，大豆粕為有顯著差異之飼料原料、玉米次之而全脂豆粉則無反應。。此外，添加AFE顯著降低大豆粕在瘤胃內培養12小時之大多數營養分降解率，但菜子粕有增加之結果，AFE之添加則提高了中洗纖維之降解率。在芻料方面，添加AFE顯著提高培養後24小時及48小時之酸洗纖維降解率，然而在青貯玉米及花生藤方面則有不同之趨勢。至於在副產物方面其結果則相當不一致，但AFE之添加可提高大多數米酒糟及小部分豆腐渣營養分降解率。 試驗三之目的為以DAISY® in vitro 尼龍袋方法，評估芻料能量及動態降解變化，供飼糧營養分調配之依據，同時瞭解具潛在利用價值之益生菌(AFE)添加之影響。三頭裝置瘤胃瘻管之荷蘭種乾乳牛作為收集瘤胃液之來源，另收集台灣乳牛常用之15種芻料供試驗使用，試驗共分為兩組分別為對照組及處理組(處理組為每公升培養液添加0.4克之AFE)，並以DAISY® in vitro 尼龍袋方法來評估AFE添加與否對飼料降解率之影響。此外並依Robinson (2000)所述來計算芻料之總可消化營養分(TDN)及泌乳淨能(NEL)。研究結果顯示，台灣常用芻料中進口芻料以苜蓿乾草有最高之30小時in vitro中洗纖維消化率及能量預估值，百慕達草稈則最低。台灣自產牧草則以花生藤及青貯玉米有較高之能量預估值，而盤固拉乾草及狼尾草均具低能量預估值，而除高於百慕達草稈外均低於其他進口牧草。加工副產物方面，粉頭有最高之30小時in vitro中洗纖維消化率，而能量預估值則以高脂肪含量之米酒糟有最高之數值。乾物質、有機物、酸洗纖維及中洗纖維降解動態變化方面，燕麥乾草之乾物質及有機物降解速率為芻料中之最高者，而苜蓿乾草則有最高之乾物質及有機物有效降解率。而青貯玉米之乾物質、有機物、酸洗纖維及中洗纖維降解速率則為台灣自產牧草中之最高者。加工副產物則以粉頭有最快之乾物質、有機物、酸洗纖維及中洗纖維降解速率及有效降解率。AFE添加之影響方面，AFE之添加可顯著提高苜蓿乾草之30小時in vitro中洗纖維消化率及能量預估值，但對盤固拉乾草、狼尾草及啤酒粕則有顯著降低之結果。再者，AFE之添加可提高大部分芻料之乾物質、有機物及中洗纖維降解速率。而在加工副產物方面僅提高米酒糟乾物質降解速率、豆腐渣之有機物降解速率以及醬油粕之酸洗纖維及中洗纖維降解速率。 試驗四之目的，為探討添加AFE於青割玉米中，並藉由分析青貯玉米各種營養成份含量變化來評估AFE之影響。試驗共分為兩組(1)對照組(2)AFE組。每組每個時間點三重複。AFE組以每噸青割玉米添加十磅經粉頭稀釋之AFE（Regular GX），而對照組則添加等量之粉頭。兩組之青割玉米經混合均勻後，以油壓機擠壓入半徑21cm而高45cm之圓柱形青貯桶中後加蓋密封，並於0、0.5、1、2、3、4、6、10、18、34天開封採樣並測定青貯玉米之pH值、可滴定酸度、緩衝能力、中洗纖維、酸洗纖維、酸性洗劑不溶性氮、中性洗劑不溶性氮、粗蛋白質、氨態氮、乳酸、揮發性脂肪酸、可溶性碳水化合物、乾物質、灰分、木質素、鎢酸不溶性蛋白質及Buffer不溶性蛋白質，並將蛋白質進行份化分析。試驗結果顯示兩處理組之青貯料於製作完成後溫度均有些微之上升但隨即下降而成穩定之狀態，並於第二天後便隨每日早晚氣溫之變化而波動。其他分析值方面，AFE組之pH值、可溶性碳水化合物、中洗纖維、酸洗纖維、木質素含量及揮發性脂肪酸中之乙酸和丙酸濃度均顯著低於對照組(P0.05)，氨態氮含量於青貯期間AFE組有持續降低之趨勢，而對照組則維持平穩但兩者間並無差異。此外由乳酸、乙酸及丁酸等濃度所計算之Flieg Score結果顯示對照組及AFE組之數值分別為75及97。在蛋白質份化方面，非蛋白態氮及真蛋白質(protein fraction A)含量兩組於青貯期間均漸增，但第34天時AFE組顯著高於對照組(P<0.05)，青貯玉米之真可溶性蛋白質、不溶於中性洗劑但溶於酸性洗劑之蛋白質及不溶於酸性洗劑之蛋白質(protein fraction B1、B3、C)方面於青貯期間兩組均漸減且無差異，而不可溶性蛋白質及中性洗劑可溶性蛋白質(protein fraction B2)於青貯期間對照組有漸增之趨勢，而AFE組則無一致之趨勢。 試驗五之目的為探討飼糧添加AFE對泌乳牛在夏季(五月至七月)及冬季(十二月至二月)生產性能之影響。本試驗採完全逢機設計 (completely randomized design, CRD)，飼糧處理分別為(1)基礎飼糧不添加AFE(2)添加AFE於完全混合飼糧(TMR)中(每天每頭牛3克Amaferm®)(3)添加AFE於玉米青貯料中(每公斤青貯玉米添加Regular GX 45.4 mg)(4)同時添加AFE於青貯玉米及完全混合飼糧中。二十八頭荷蘭種泌乳牛逢機分配至四個處理組，分別餵飼於個別夾欄中並供給任食八週。研究結果顯示，添加AFE於青貯玉米中可顯著提高夏季乾物質採食量4.4%及乳量3.1% (P<0.05)。在冬季則AFE之添加可顯著提高產乳量達10% (P<0.05)。AFE直接添加於TMR在冬季時，其乳量亦顯著高於添加於玉米青貯料中有7.4% (P<0.05)。此外同時添加AFE於TMR及玉米青貯料中，在冬季飼養試驗亦顯示有加成提高乳量之效果。然而AFE之添加並未改善冬季之乾物質採食量。在夏季之飼養試驗方面，添加AFE對乳脂肪率有不利之影響，但對乳脂肪量則無影響。相較於直接添加AFE於TMR中對降低乳脂肪率之影響，添加AFE於青貯玉米中顯示有減緩負面影響之趨勢，而在冬季試驗亦有相似之趨勢。在夏季試驗中，添加AFE於玉米青貯料中，其乳蛋白率顯著低於直接添加於TMR中(P<0.05)，但對乳蛋白質產量則無顯著之影響。AFE之添加顯著提高冬季之乳蛋白率(P<0.05)，且添加於青貯玉米之效果亦顯著高於直接添加於TMR中(P<0.05)。 添加AFE顯著降低夏季之乳中總固形物率(P<0.005)。此外，在冬季添加AFE組每生產一單位之牛乳所需之乾物質採食較少，且同時添加AFE於青貯玉米及TMR中，其生產每一單位牛乳所需之乾物質、能量及蛋白質採食量最少。然而添加AFE並未能減輕泌乳牛之夏季熱緊迫。 試驗六之目的為探討AFE添加於TMR、青貯玉米或同時添加，對瘤胃性狀及營養分消化率之影響。四頭裝置瘤胃及十二指腸瘻管之荷蘭種乾乳牛，以4×4拉丁方格設計分配至四個處理組中，飼糧處理與泌乳牛試驗一樣，分別為(1)基礎飼糧不添加AFE(2)添加AFE於完全混合飼糧(TMR)中(每天每頭牛3克Amaferm®)(3)添加AFE於玉米青貯料中(每公斤青貯玉米添加Regular GX 45.4 mg)(4)同時添加AFE於青貯玉米及完全混合飼糧中。研究結果顯示，AFE之添加顯著提高乾物質、有機物、中洗纖維及粗蛋白質於總消化道之表面消化率。酸洗纖維方面，AFE之添加可顯著提高其瘤胃表面消化率，且總消化道表面消化率亦有增加之趨勢存在。此外，未添加AFE之對照組，有顯著較高之酸洗纖維及中洗纖維採食量，但在乾物質、有機物及粗蛋白質採食量方面則無顯著之差異存在。然AFE之添加均有顯著降低糞便乾物質、有機物、酸洗纖維、中洗纖維及粗蛋白質之排出量。在不同方式添加AFE之影響，除AFE添加於青貯玉米比直接添加於TMR中，有較高之十二指腸粗蛋白溢流量以及較低之瘤胃表面粗蛋白質消化率之趨勢外，在其他方面則無顯著之影響。瘤胃性狀方面，AFE之添加顯著提高瘤胃內之pH值、氨態氮濃度及丁酸莫耳百分比，但顯著降低乙酸、異丁酸及異戊酸莫耳百分比。此外同時經由青貯玉米及TMR添加AFE，其pH值亦顯著高於個別經由青貯玉米及TMR添加AFE。丙酸方面，經由青貯玉米添加AFE具有最高之數值，並顯著高於經由TMR直接添加AFE之方式，但乙酸與丙酸之比例方面，則有相反之情形。液體通過速率方面，AFE之添加與否及添加方式，均無顯著之差異存在。柒、英文摘要 Abstract The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of Aspergillus oryzae fermentation extract supplementation on dairy cow in Taiwan. Experiments concluded in vitro、in situ、corn ensilage、in vivo lactating and in vivo metabolism trials, and tried to find out the mode of action of Aspergillus oryzae. In experimental Ⅰ: the aim of this study is trying to establish a model of in vitro rumen fermentation on AFE. Three different treatments are the blank rumen fluid as control, self-prepared AFE and commercial AFE (Amaferm). Twenty-two feed ingredients that are commonly used in dairy rations including concentrates, roughages and by-products, were individually added, as substrate into the inoculums of strained rumen fluid. These in vitro fermentations were used to fluid out the influence of Aspergillus oryzae fermentation extract and the various substrates on the characteristics of the ruminal fermentation and nutrient degradability. Results showed that the amylase and CMCase activity of commercial AFE were higher than self-prepared AFE about 16.7 times and 351 times, but the protease activity of self-prepared AFE was higher than commercial AFE about 59 times. Effect of AFE inclusion, steam-flake corn and wheat were the most responsive feedstuffs. The inclusion of commercial AFE improved the ruminal degradability of corn silage, Timothy, oat hay, peanut vine and napiergrass. Alfalfa hay showed a different trend of response: addition of commercial AFE lowered its degradability. Additionally, self-prepared AFE was not as well as commercial AFE on the improved of degradability, but it also improved some roughage degradability. Addition of self-prepared AFE to concentrates and roughage tended to enhance total VFA concentrate, however commercial AFE supplementation had a better response on by-products. The effect of AFE were also inconsistent on the fermentation characteristics of the rumen; These includes individual VFA, NH3, pH value and protozoa population. In experimental Ⅱ:The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of Aspergillus oryzae fermentation extract (AFE) on in situ degradation of the various concentrates, forages and by-products in Taiwan. The in situ trial was conducted to determine the effect of AFE on the rate of ruminal degradation of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and acid detergent fiber (ADF) of the various local available feedstuff that commonly use in the dairy cattle. Two ruminal fistulated cows that were arranged into a two by two switchback trial. Two dietary treatments was control without AFE inclusion diet and diet that added 3 g of AFE (Amaferm) daily into the total mixed ration (TMR). Results showed that effect of AFE inclusion on the ruminal degradability of concentrates, soybean meal is the most responsive feedstuff, corn is the next, whereas full-fat soybean did not response the AFE inclusion at all. The inclusions of AFE significantly improve ADF degradation of roughage after 24 or 48 hours of incubation. However, corn silage and peanut-vines showed the different trend. Effects of AFE inclusion on the by-products degradability were inconsistent. Most of nutrients in rice distillers’ grain and some in beancurd pomace did show increase degradation by the AFE inclusion. In experimental Ⅲ:The aim of this study was to predict the energy value and dynamic degradation of roughage in Taiwan using the Daisy® in vitro fermentation method to provide information on one of the very important nutrients for ration formulation. The second objective was to study the effects of Aspergillus oryzae (AFE) inclusion on nutrient utilization. Three ruminal fistulated dry dairy cows were used for rumen fluid and fifteen conventional forages used in dairy cattle were collected around this island. The degradability of these feedstuffs with and without AFE (Amaferm®) treatment was measured using the Daisy® in vitro method. The roughage energy values, including TDN and NEL, were calculated according to Robinson (2000). Results from the 30hrs in vitro neutral detergent fiber (NDF) degradability and predicted energy evaluations showed that alfalfa (among the forages) contained the highest degradability and energy values, Bermuda straw having the lowest. Peanut vines and corn silage contained higher energy values and the lowest value found in Pangola and Napier grasses among the locally produced forages. Pangola and Napier grasses had lower values than most imported forages except Bermuda straw. Among the by-products, wheat middling contained the highest NDF degradability, while rice bran contained the richest energy value due to its high oil content. From the dynamic dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) degradation, corn silage contained the highest effective degradation among the local forages; wheat middling (among the by-products) degraded the fastest in DM, OM, ADF and NDF and showed the highest effective degradability. AFE inclusion was inconsistent among the forages. Alfalfa hay showed significantly increased 30 hrs NDF degradability and energy values, Pangola hay, Napier grass and brewer’s grains showed decreased degradability and energy values. AFE inclusion increased the DM, OM and NDF degradation rate in most forage, but only increased the DM degradation rate in sorghum distiller’s grains, the OM degradation rate in bean curd pomace and the NDF and ADF degradation rates in soy pomace (among the by-products). In experimental Ⅳ:This study is aimed at evaluating the effect of Aspergillus oryzae fermentation extract (AFE) on corn silage fermentation characteristics. Trial included two groups of treatments, with or without AFE inclusion in corn ensilage. Sixty corn silage containers, including two treatments with thirty replicates each, were processed in a laboratory scale mini-silo of 21-cm radius by 45-cm height. Three replicate containers were opened and sampled for analysis at 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 18 and 34 days after being ensiled. One silage container from each treatment was installed with a remote controlled electronic thermometer to record the temperature changes. Analysis included silage temperature, pH, fermentation acids, the water-soluble carbohydrates and chemical compositions and the silage protein fractions. Results showed that on the first day, the temperature of the ensiled corn was slightly higher than room temperature, but returned to room temperature on the second day. The pH and concentrations of WSC, ADF, lignin and acetic acid in the AFE treated silage were significantly lower than the control groups (p0.05). Ammonia N concentration in the AFE treated silage showed a trend of decrease (p>0.05). NPN and the protein fraction A in both groups increased during the conservation period, but fraction A in the AFE treated corn silage was significantly higher than the control silage (p<0.05). During the conservation period, the AFE treated corn silage showed a trend toward a decrease in fractions B1, B3 and C (p<0.05). The protein fraction B2 showed a trend toward increase in the control group and an inconsistent trend in the AFE treated silage during the ensiling period. The AFE treated silage showed a better Flieg score over the control silage (97 vs. 75) as calculated from the concentrations of lactic acid, acetic acid and butyric acid. In experimental Ⅴ: the aims of this study is to evaluate the effect of Aspergillus oryzae Fermentation Extract (AFE) on the performance of lactating cows in summer (May to July) and winter (December to February). The experiment was a completely randomized design (CRD) and dietary treatments were 1) basal diet without AFE, 2) basal plus 3g/d AFE into the basal total mixed ration (TMR), 3) basal plus 45.4 mg AFE/kg the ensiling corn silage and 4) AFE inclusion in silage and TMR. Twenty-eight cows from each trial were selected and randomly allocated into the four treatment groups, confined in individual pens, and fed ad libitum for 8 weeks in both feeding trials. Results showed that AFE inclusion in corn silage significantly improved DM intake by 4.4% and milk yield by 3.1% (p<0.05) during the summer season. In the winter season, AFE inclusion in the diet significantly improved milk yield by 10%. Direct addition of AFE to the TMR however, significantly improved milk yield over the addition through corn silage by 7.4% in the winter (p<0.05). An additive effect of AFE inclusion into TMR and through corn silage was also demonstrated in the winter-feeding. AFE inclusion however, did not improve DM intake during the winter trial. In the summer trial, inclusion of AFE showed an adverse effect on the percentage of milk fat, but did not impact on the milk fat yield. Adding AFE through corn silage showed a trend towards alleviating the negative effects of milk fat from direct AFE inclusion in TMR. The similar trend occurred in the winter trial. The inclusion of AFE through corn silage significantly lowered the milk protein content over direct AFE addition, but did not significantly impacted the milk protein yield in the summer season. AFE supplementation during the winter season significantly increased milk protein content. Adding AFE to the corn silage significantly increased milk protein content over direct AFE addition in the winter. Inclusion of AFE significantly decreased total milk solid content in the summer (p<0.005). During the winter season, inclusion of AFE required less DM to produce a unit of milk. Inclusion of AFE into corn silage required less DM, energy and protein to produce a unit of milk. But inclusion of AFE did not alleviate heat stress on the lactating cows. In experimental Ⅵ: the aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of Aspergillus oryzae Fermentation Extract (AFE) on the ruminal characters and nutrient digestibility. Four ruminal and duodenal cannulated Holstein dairy cows were fed in a 4×4 Latin square design to four different diet and dietary treatment were 1) basal diet without AFE, 2) basal plus 3g/d AFE into the basal total mixed ration (TMR), 3) basal plus 45.4 mg AFE/kg the ensiling corn silage and 4) AFE inclusion in silage and TMR. Results showed that AFE inclusion in the diet significantly improved DM、OM、NDF and CP apparent total tract digestion of DM、OM、NDF and CP. AFE inclusion in the diet also significantly improved apparent ruminal digestion of AFE and show a trend forwards improved apparent total tract digestion of ADF. The inclusion of AFE significantly lowered the ADF and NDF intake, but d id not impact on the DM、OM and CP intake. AFE supplementation significantly lowered fecal DM、OM、ADF、NDF and CP flow . The inclusion of AFE through corn silage showed a trend towards increased CP flowing to the duodenum and significantly lowered apparent ruminal digestion of CP but did not impact on the others. AFE inclusion in the diet significantly increased ruminal pH、NH3 concentrate and butyrate molar percentage, but also significantly lowered acetate and isovalerate molar percentage. Double inclusion of AFE through both corn silage and TMR showed a significantly increased ruminal pH a compared to either in the silage or directly into TMR. The inclusion of AFE through corn silage showed a highest propionate molar percentage and significantly higher than direct AFE inclusion in TMR, but C2/C3 ration showed an adverse effect. AFE inclusion, however, did not impact on the liquid passage rate.目次 頁次 壹、中文摘要------------------------------------------------1 貳、前言----------------------------------------------------6 參、文獻探討------------------------------------------------7 第一節：一般生菌及使用於反芻動物益生菌之簡介------------7 (一)一般生菌之簡介-----------------------------------7 (二)真菌類飼料添加劑(真菌類益生菌)應用於反芻 動物之簡介---------------------------------------7 第二節：真菌類飼料添加劑之In vitro 試驗----------------8 (一)氨態氮濃度---------------------------------------8 (二)乳酸代謝----------------------------------------10 (三)pH 值-------------------------------------------12 (四)細菌、真菌及原蟲--------------------------------12 (五)甲烷生成----------------------------------------15 (六)揮發性脂肪酸濃度--------------------------------16 (七)降解率------------------------------------------17 第三節：真菌類飼料添加劑之In situ 試驗----------------18 第四節：真菌類飼料添加劑之In vivo 生產試驗------------19 (一)乾物質採食量------------------------------------19 (二)乳量--------------------------------------------21 (三)乳成分------------------------------------------21 (四)牛乳及血液尿素氮和體重變化----------------------22 第五節：真菌類飼料添加劑之In vivo 代謝試驗------------23 (一)瘤胃性狀----------------------------------------23 (二)飼糧消化率--------------------------------------27 (三)食糜通過速率------------------------------------29 (四)熱緊迫------------------------------------------30 第六節：真菌類飼料添加劑添加於反芻動物之可能作用機制--31 第七節：Aspergillus oryzae之由來、特性及本試驗所使用 自製菌及商用菌產量(Amaferm®)之製作及簡介-------35 (一)Aspergillus oryzae之由來-----------------------35 (二)Aspergillus oryzae之特性-----------------------35 (三)自製AFE 之製備---------------------------------35 (四)Aspergillus oryzae 醱酵抽出物-Amaferm®之製作及 簡介--------------------------------------------35 肆、試驗部分----------------------------------------------37 第一章：AFE 對in vitro 瘤胃醱酵之影響-------------------37 第一節、摘要-----------------------------------------37 第二節、前言-----------------------------------------38 第三節、材料與方法-----------------------------------40 第四節、結果與討論-----------------------------------43 第五節、結論-----------------------------------------47 第二章：添加AFE對台灣乳牛飼料in situ 降解率之影響-----76 第一節、摘要-----------------------------------------76 第二節、前言-----------------------------------------77 第三節、材料與方法-----------------------------------78 第四節、結果與討論-----------------------------------80 第五節、結論-----------------------------------------82 第三章：利用DAISY® in vitro尼龍袋法評估台灣芻料能量及 動態降解變化以及AFE 添加之影響-----------------90 第一節、摘要-----------------------------------------90 第二節、前言-----------------------------------------91 第三節、材料與方法-----------------------------------93 第四節、結果與討論-----------------------------------96 第五節、結論-----------------------------------------101 第四章：添加AFE對玉米青貯料之影響---------------------109 第一節、摘要-----------------------------------------109 第二節、前言-----------------------------------------111 第三節、材料與方法-----------------------------------113 第四節、結果與討論-----------------------------------115 第五節、結論-----------------------------------------119 第五章：添加AFE對台灣乳牛夏季及冬季生產性能之影響-----128 第一節、摘要-----------------------------------------128 第二節、前言-----------------------------------------129 第三節、材料與方法-----------------------------------131 第四節、結果與討論-----------------------------------133 第五節、結論-----------------------------------------138 第六章：AFE添加與否及添加方式對乾乳牛瘤胃性狀及營養分 消化率之影響------------------------------------143 第一節、摘要-----------------------------------------143 第二節、前言-----------------------------------------144 第三節、材料與方法-----------------------------------146 第四節、結果與討論-----------------------------------148 第五節、結論-----------------------------------------154 伍、總結論-----------------------------------------------160 陸、參考文獻---------------------------------------------161 柒、英文摘要---------------------------------------------17

Studies on the use of brewers grains and bean curd pomance in dairy ration

本試驗之目的，在以新蛋白質系統觀念下，重新評估啤酒 粕 及豆腐渣兩種副產物單獨或混合以取代日糧部份精料時，對 泌乳牛隻 生產性能及瘤胃性狀之影響(副產物佔日糧乾基之10 ％)，藉以評估本 省副產物於乳牛之飼養價值，以提供酪農依副 產物之生產季節，來擬定 全年各個時期乳牛飼養計畫之參考。 選用32頭荷蘭牛逢機分成四組： 一、對照組 ；二、啤酒粕組； 三、豆腐渣組； 四、混合副產物組(啤 酒粕及豆腐渣各半)。試 驗日糧(乾基)均含35％玉米青貯料、20％苜蓿 乾草及45％精 料，並依NRC(1989)乳牛飼養標準配成等能量等蛋白質 之混合日 糧。經預備試驗一週後進行荷蘭牛飼養試驗八週。另外，以拉 丁方格設計將四頭裝置瘤胃廔管之荷蘭種乾乳牛，分配於四組 試驗飼 糧飼養之，每十日為一期，收集瘤胃液分析之。 試驗結果顯示乳量方面，豆腐渣組顯著高於其他三組 (P<0.05)， 而啤酒粕組及混合副產物組又顯著高於對照組 (P<0.05)。採食量 方面對照組及啤酒粕組顯著高於豆腐渣組及 混合副產物組(P<0.05)。 在乳成分方面；乳脂肪、乳固形物、 乳蛋白質及乳糖含量(％)以對照 組、啤酒粕組及豆腐渣組顯著 高於混合副產物組(P<0.05)。而乳糖含 量(％)方面，豆腐渣組 又顯著高於啤酒粕組(P<0.05)。乳組成產量方 面，乳脂肪、乳 固形物、乳蛋白質及乳糖之產量(kg/d)，豆腐渣組顯 著高於其 他三組(P<0.05)，而餵飼混合副產物組牛隻之乳脂肪、乳固 形 物、蛋白質產量(kg/d)則顯著低於對照組及啤酒粕組 (P<0.05)。各日糧處理組間之瘤胃pH值，體重變化均無顯著差 異( P>0.05)。The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of brewers grains and bean curd pomance supplementation on the performance of lactating cows and the characteristics of their rumen (by-products accounting for 10％ of TMR, DM basis), so as to create a way to solve the problem of waste and pollution from these by-products. Thirty-two Holstein lactating cows were alloted radomly into four groups for treatment. The treatments were control; brewers grains group; bean curd pomance group and mixed by-products group(containing the same amount of brewers grains and bean curd pomance), respectively. The mixed rations of treatments were formulated to be iso- energetic and iso-nitrogenous according to the nutrient commendation of NRC(1989); and containing 35％ corn silage、 20％ alfalfa hay and 45％ concentrate(DM basis). The experimental period lasted for 8 weeks after a week of acclaimation period. In addition, four dry Holstein cows fitted with rumen cannula were used in a 4×4 Latin square with 10-d periods for collecting rumen liquid samples for analysis. Results showed that cows fed the bean curd pomance diet produced significantly more milk than the others(P<0.05), and cows fed the brewers grains and mixed by-products diet produced significantly more milk than the control group(P<0.05). Both the control and brewers grains groups took in more feed than those in the bean curd pomance and mixed by-products groups(P<0.05). The cows fed the mixed by-products diet produced a significantly lower percentage of milk fat, total solids, milk protein and milk lactose than the others(P<0.05). The milk lactose percentage was significantly more high for cows fed the bean curd pomance diet than those fed the brewers grains diet(P<0.05). Regarding the amount of milk fat, total solids, milk protein and milk lactose produced by cows; Cows fed a bean curd pomance diet produced significantly more than the others(P<0.05). Cows fed the mixed by-products diet produced significantly lower amounts of milk fat, total solids and milk protein than the control and brewers grains groups(P<0.05). This diet did not significantly influence the body weight of the cows or the ruminal pH values(P>0.05)

Study of Pipeline Leakage Estimation in Taiwan

經查相關統計資料顯示，台灣地區自來水管線的漏水量約占供水量的四分之一，換算一年至少漏掉了兩座翡翠水庫蓄水量，在水資源匱乏的台灣是一大諷刺，比起鄰近的日本平均漏水率不到10%，仍有相當大的努力空間。惟世界各國對自來水管線漏水的管控、計算或定義，尚無相同標準，國際水協(IWA)始提出其建議，但仍未獲共識。 目前台灣地區自來水管線漏水計量方式，除少數藉由小區管網（分區計量，DMA）所設置之水量計計量所得與該區內同時段用戶水表抄見量作比較外，大部分均由修漏後之管材，藉由水壓、破管裂縫開孔面積，套用日本所研擬之經驗公式製成表格對照使用（以CMD計量），惟此舉往往因水壓、破管裂縫開孔面積之認定因人而異，而產生極大的誤差且爭議不斷。 本研究將就自來水管線漏水原因，國內外漏水量計量方式及其缺失作檢討，並對正確計量進行探討，俾供學術與實務界參酌。管線漏水原因係就台灣自來水公司之檢漏與修漏管理系統，歷年來所蒐集資料做分析。漏水量計量方式係採現行國內外經常使用之量計方式做比較分析。最後再就台灣地區之環境、使用管材、施工方法及人員訓練…等作審慎評估，藉以建議適用之技術或修正計量方式，俾利落實水資源的充分運用與管理。Government statistics show that tap water pipeline leakage is nearly 25% of total water supply, as much as 2 gross storage of the Taipei Feitsui Reservoir for one year long leakage. This situation is ironic for a water resource deficient country like Taiwan. Compared with the nearby country Japan, whose average leakage rate is less than 10%, Taiwan still has a long way to go. A wide diversity of definitions of tap water pipeline leakage is used by water utilities around the world. Though International Water Association (IWA) proposed a definition, until now no standard definition has been accepted by all the utilities. Where DMAs are established, the calculation of real losses in its simplest form is volume of system input minus volume of billed metered consumption. In most cases in Taiwan, leakage estimates are based on the Japanese empirical formula with parameters of water pressure, and cleavage area on pipelines. However, all men are liable to error, and errors are sometimes a very substantial component of apparent losses, which makes the estimation highly controversial. This study is aimed to review the causes and calculation of pipeline leakage, in order to improve the accuracy of the water leakage estimation. The causes of pipeline leakage will be referred to statistics collected in the Taiwan Water Corporation's “Leakage Detection and Repair Management System”, and the most commonly used calculations of pipeline leakage will be reviewed and analyzed. Furthermore, the environment of Taiwan, pipe materials selection, engineering method and personnel training will be also deliberately reviewed to propose a modified recommendation, in order to utilize and manage the water resources efficiently.目 錄 第一章 前言 1 1-1研究緣起 1 1-2 研究目的 2 第二章 文獻回顧 3 2-1 管線漏水原因 3 2-2 國內外漏水量計量方式 9 2-3 現有漏水計量缺失 13 第三章 研究方法 15 3-1 實用公式 15 3-2 以塑膠管作為研究標的 16 第四章 結果與討論 17 4-1 以一般修漏案件驗證 17 4-2 以小區管網驗證 18 4-3驗證與探討 35 第五章 結論與建議 38 5-1 結論 38 5-2 建議 38 參考文獻 66 圖目錄 圖2-1 巷道給水管整合 6 圖2-2 配水管與給水管同時汰換 7 圖4-1 管網種類 19 圖4-2 小區管網建置執行流程圖 20 圖4-3 破管照片 21 圖5-1 修漏管理系統首頁 39 圖5-2 修漏管理系統畫面 40 表目錄 表2-1 台灣自來水公司漏水原因分析表 42 表2-2 北水處管種別漏水原因件數 43 表2-3 東京都漏水原因比例 44 表2-4 台灣自來水公司管線長度統計表 45 表2-5 北水處各管種別之輸配水管長度統計表 46 表2-6 東京都自來水管種與漏水率變化 47 表2-7 各管種適用情形評估表 48 表2-8 台灣自來水公司各類管材K值計算彙整表 49 表2-9 由折損漏水狀況與口徑計算斷面積 50 表2-10 漏水量速算表 51 表4-1 汐止保長路一街小區管網統計分析表 52 表4-2 林口鄉工二粉寮自強小區管網統計分析表 53 表4-3 信義鄉新鄉村小區管網統計分析表 54 表4-4 宜蘭市負郭小區管網統計分析表 55 表4-5 蘇澳鎮南方澳內埤小區管網統計分析表 56 表4-6 羅東鎮仁和小區管網統計分析表 57 表4-7 彰化市彰水路小區管網統計分析表 58 表4-8 鶯歌鎮添福小區管網統計分析表 59 表4-9 樹林鎮迴龍小區管網統計分析表 60 表4-10 蘆洲鄉荖阡坑小區管網統計分析表 61 表4-11 各小區管網分析彙整表 6

Discussion and Suggestion on Improvement in Load Capacity of Taiwan's Steel Scaffolds

台灣傳統之鋼管鷹架作為支撐架使用時，其承載能力會受到排數、層數及側向支撐等因素的影響，本研究發展出改良式鷹架支撐系統並以ANSYS軟體分別分析比較傳統式與改良式鋼管鷹架的承載能力。改良式鋼管鷹架係在最下層鋼管鷹架底部設置一支橫桿，如此可解決部分側向支撐問題，經分析結果顯示其承載能力隨層數的增加可增加1.11至2.47倍。其破壞模式(方向)從由傳統式的鷹架面（in-plane）方向改變為改良式的垂直鷹架面（out-of-plane）方向，改良式鷹架系統每一層都變成幾乎一樣強，挫屈（buckling）現象也在各層同時發生，不像傳統式僅發生在第一層損壞。綜此，本文發展之改良式鷹架可作為台灣傳統鋼管鷹架修改之參考。Unlike Europe's scaffolds, Taiwan's traditional steel scaffolds load-carrying capacities were usually affected by the factors such as the number of set, number of story, lateral supports when the scaffolds function as a support. Therefore, this research's aim is to develop a new type of scaffolds. Through using the software “ANSYS,” the load-carrying capacity between traditional and new type of steel scaffolds can be analyzed and compared. The improved steel scaffolds, which a new member is added horizontally in the bottom, can solve the problem of lateral supports. As a result, the load-carrying capacity may enhance 1.11 to 2.47 times than before with the increasing number of story. The failure mode of the scaffolds shifts from the traditional in-plane direction to the improved out-of-plane direction. In this way, each story of the improved scaffold system becomes exactly the same powerful. Instead of the damage of the first story often seen in the traditional type, the phenomenon of buckling happens in every story at the same time. To sum up, the improved steel scaffold in this thesis can be considered as a reference to the modification of Taiwan's traditional steel scaffolds.目 錄 中文摘要…………………………………………………………I 英文摘要………………………………………………………...II 目錄……………………………………………………………..III 表目錄…………………………………………………………...V 圖目錄…………………………………………………………...V 第一章 緒論 1 1-1 前言 1 1-2 國內外鋼管支撐及鋼管鷹架之分類及使用現況 2 1-3 研究動機與目的 4 1-4 論文架構安排 5 第二章 文獻回顧及相關法規 6 2-1國內外文獻回顧 6 2-2國內外相關法規 10 第三章 改良式鋼管鷹架的構思 14 3-1 目的 14 3-2 傳統式鋼管鷹架之特性 14 3-3 建議之改良式鋼管鷹架 15 第四章 傳統式與改良式鋼管鷹架支撐之比較 17 4-1 目的 17 4-2 名詞定義 17 4-3 基本假設 18 4-4 數值分析模式之建立 19 4-5 鋼管鷹架支撐系統承載能力及破壞模式之比較 21 4-6 討論 24 第五章 結論與建議 26 表 目 錄 表一傳統式鋼管鷹架支撐數值分析成果…………………….33 表二改良式鋼管鷹架支撐數值分析成果…………………….34 表三傳統式與改良式鋼管鷹架支撐數值分析比較………….35 圖 目 錄 圖1-1 鋼管支柱………………………………………………36 圖1-2 鋼管門型鷹架…………………………………………36 圖1-3 系統鷹架………………………………………………36 圖1-4 坊間常見鋼管門型鷹架………………………………37 圖1-5 變異型鋼管門型鷹架…………………………………37 圖1-6 不同廠商之鋼管型…………….…...…………………38 圖1-7 鋼管門型鷹架ST-104M尺寸示意圖………………..39 圖3-1 一般典型之鋼管鷹架支撐系統………………………39 圖3-2 純鋼管鷹架系統(無木支撐)之結構模式…………….41 圖3-3 傳統式鋼管鷹架示意圖………………………………42 圖3-4 改良式鋼管鷹架示意圖………………………………43 圖4-1 鋼管鷹架系統之基本單元體…………………………43 圖4-2 鋼管鷹架支撐系統組合元素…………………………44 圖4-3 三維樑元素BEAM 4 (3-D Elastic Beam) ……………45 圖4-4 三維二力桿元素LINK 8 (3-D Spar) …………………45 圖4-5 鋼管門型鷹架ST-104M尺寸示意圖………………46 圖4-6 交叉拉桿尺寸示意圖……………………………….46 圖4-7 雙排傳統式鋼管鷹架荷重…………………………...47 圖4-8 雙排改良式鋼管鷹架荷重………………………….48 圖4-9 雙排傳統式與改良式鋼管鷹架荷重比較……………49 圖4-10傳統式雙排雙層荷重模型…………………………….50 圖4-11傳統式雙排雙層x方向破壞模式……………………...50 圖4-12傳統式雙排雙層xy方向破壞模式……………………51 圖4-13傳統式雙排雙層y方向破壞模式……………………51 圖4-14傳統式雙排五層荷重模型………………………….…52 圖4-15傳統式雙排五層x方向破壞模式…………………...52 圖4-16傳統式雙排五層xy方向破壞模式…………………53 圖4-17傳統式雙排五層y方向破壞模式……………………53 圖4-18傳統式雙排十層荷重模型…………………………….54 圖4-19傳統式雙排十層x方向破壞模式…………………...54 圖4-20傳統式雙排十層xy方向破壞模式………………….55 圖4-21傳統式雙排十層y方向破壞模式……………………55 圖4-22傳統式雙排二十層荷重模型………………………….56 圖4-23傳統式雙排二十層x方向破壞模式…………………..56 圖4-24傳統式雙排二十層xy方向破壞模式…………………57 圖4-25傳統式雙排二十層y方向破壞模式…………………57 圖4-26傳統式五排二十層荷重模型…………………………58 圖4-27傳統式五排二十層x方向破壞模式…………………..58 圖4-28傳統式五排二十層xy方向破壞模式…………………59 圖4-29傳統式五排二十層y方向破壞模式…………………59 圖4-30改良式雙排雙層荷重模型圖………………………….60 圖4-31改良式雙排雙層x方向破壞模式……………..………60 圖4-32改良式雙排雙層xy方向破壞模式……………………61 圖4-33改良式雙排雙層y方向破壞模式……………………61 圖4-34改良式雙排五層荷重模型圖…………………………62 圖4-35改良式雙排五層x方向破壞模式……………………..62 圖4-36改良式雙排五層xy方向破壞模式……………………63 圖4-37改良式雙排五層y方向破壞模式……………………63 圖4-38改良式雙排十層荷重模型圖………………………….64 圖4-39雙排十層x方向破壞模式………………………...…64 圖4-40改良式雙排十層xy方向破壞模式………………….65 圖4-41改良式雙排十層y方向破壞模式……………………65 圖4-42改良式雙排二十層荷重模型圖……………………….66 圖4-43改良式雙排二十層x方向破壞模式………………...66 圖4-44改良式雙排二十層xy方向破壞模………………….67 圖4-45改良式雙排二十層y方向破壞模式…………………67 圖4-46改良式五排二十層荷重模型圖………………………68 圖4-47改良式五排二十層x方向破壞模式……………...…68 圖4-48改良式五排二十層xy方向破壞模式………….……69 圖4-49改良式五排二十層y方向破壞模式…………………6

機車利用廢熱發電

[[abstract]]摘 要： 面對全球初級能源日漸耗竭且石油價格日益飆漲，以及二氧化碳溫室效應的問題，能源議題目前已成為各國最關注的焦點之一。最引人注目的解決能源之道為開創所謂的再生能源，這是最具環保意識的能源，其中最被重視的有太陽光電、風力發電、生質柴油及生質酒精，還有地熱及海洋能等。惟廢熱的回收似乎未引起能源界及環保界應有的重視，但是根據美國能源部的報導，到2020 年美國將有5% 的能源是由廢熱的回收使用。本文擬討論的是熱電效應，也就是熱電之間的相互轉換。早在1821 年席貝克即發現把兩種不同金屬線的兩端接合，若兩接點間有溫差時會產生電位差。12年後，帕爾地則發現若於兩種不同金屬接合成的線路上通電流，其中一接點會放熱而另一接點則會吸熱，此現象即是熱電致冷器之工作原理。由於受到材料的限制，其轉換效率並不高，因此致冷及熱電產生器的應用一直侷限在特定用途，無法普遍化。近年來由於奈米科技的發展，使潛伏已久的熱電轉換技術再度受到重視，先前轉換效率不高的問題也在理論上和實驗上均有了突破性的進展。熱力學第一定理敘述能量的不滅，具有多種存在的型態，它們之間可以互換。熱電效應一方面可以把低階的熱能轉換為高階的電能，它亦可以把電流不經由傳統的機械壓縮方式，使導線的一端致冷而另一端致熱。熱電轉換技術具有高可靠度、無噪音、無機械震動、質輕不佔空間、無須壓縮冷媒、符合環保概念等優點。本文就熱電效應的回顧及前瞻性作一論述。現代社會許多人都以汽機車代步，上班族、學生、老師……等等，大量的廢氣及廢熱瀰漫整個空氣中，卻像是一堆看不見的能源就這樣在我們的面前被浪費，所謂的廢熱，是熱的一種存在，而「熱」是能量的其中一種型態，我們將這些廢熱收集起來並且利用致冷晶片的Seeback Effect(西貝克效應)以溫差發電，將廢熱回收轉換為方便使用的電能，再加以簡單的應用，或是回收進機車電

選擇權隱含風險中立機率密度函數之解釋能力與預測能力的檢驗－以外幣選擇權為例

本研究乃探討由選擇權價格所隱含之風險中立機率密度函數(Risk Neutral Density)的資訊內涵，透過2006年1月至2016年7月的四種貨幣(歐元、日圓、南非幣以及人民幣)兌換美元的選擇權市場資料(共計552筆週資料)，我們獲得新的研究發現。首先是風險中立機率密度函數比隱含波動率(Implied Volatility)能涵蓋更多資訊。其次，風險中立機率密度函數的三階動差與外幣交換曲線(Foreign Exchange Swap Curve)有很高的相關。另外，本研究亦發現風險中立機率密度函數的動差對災難性事件比隱含波動率有更高的敏感度。最後，本研究亦發現用中立機率密度函數所衡量的三、四階動差對於預測匯率變動的能力會比隱含波動率來得高

台灣民族藥學知識及其保護 Ethno-pharmacological Knowledge of Taiwan and its Protection

原住民藥學知識長久以來減輕或治療原住民族的病痛，也是近代藥學發展所依據的可貴來源。因此製藥公司都熱衷於進行生物探勘。然而生物探勘的成本頗為昂貴，傳統知識可以提高篩選成功的機率。台灣原住民有豐富的藥用植物學傳統知識，過去一百年間民族植物學者的調查，作為藥用的植物約400 種之多，治療的疾病也相當廣泛，包括家醫科、外科、皮膚科、眼科、耳鼻喉科、齒科、內科、腸胃科、流行傳染病科、胸腔科、骨科、神經內科、婦產科等50 種症狀。 傳統知識的保護，可分為知識權的保障，以及知識維持與創新機制的保護等兩方面。傳統知識權的保護，可分成包括專利、營業秘密等智慧財產權的，以及契約協定、習慣法等非智財權方面的規範。就智慧財產權的保護而言，需要將傳統民族藥物學知識分成「公領域」與「私領域」兩類來討論。 台灣原住民傳統知識的保護，面臨若干問題。在知識權的保障方面，以智財權以外的權利保護而言，目前最大的缺憾是尚未能建立事先告知同意與惠益分享的制度。在消極性保護方面，最大的困難在於台灣並非WIPO與會員國，以及CBD、UPOV、伯恩條約的簽約國，因此縱然資料庫或註冊工作已經完成，並不能保證能夠順利地讓各國專利主管機關採用，作為防止生物剽竊審核的參考。就積極性的保護而言，最大的問題在於權利歸屬主體之認定困難。其主要原因是在於傳統領域的模糊化，所謂惠益分享，究應歸屬於哪些人，有認定的困難。以營業秘密而言，由於私有財產制、市場經濟已經普遍施行原住民部落，因此使得營業秘密的保障，發生很大的困難。就知識維持與創新機制的保護方面而言，最大的難題在於傳統慣習的急遽消失，以及部落自主性的衰弱，使得原有促使傳統知識保存與創新的人與環境 的緊密關係，並不易回復。 Indigenous ethnopharmacological knowledge has been used to ease or cure pain and diseases of indigenous peoples for a long time and is also a valuable source for the development of modern drugs. For this reason, many pharmaceutical companies are engaged in bioprospecting. However, cost of bioprospecting is fairly expensive. Traditional knowledge may be used to increase probability of sieving out useful pharmaceutical materials from numerous biomaterials. Indigenous peoples of Taiwan have created rich ethnobotanical knowledge. During the past one hundred years, ethnobotanists have recorded more than 400 medicinal plant species that were used to curing about 50 diseases, covering dermatology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, dental pain, gastroenterology, infectious diseases, respiratory disorders, orthopedics, neurology, obstetrics/gynecology and others. Protection of traditional knowledge (TK) is divided into two dimensions: safeguard of knowledge rights and of system that maintaining and innovating knowledge. The protection of TK rights contains intellectual property right regime, such as patent and trade secret, and non-intellectual property right regime, including contract and customary laws. Regarding the protection of intellectual property right regime, discussion should be made focusing on “public domain” and “private domain” into which traditional ethnopharmacological knowledge is divided. Protecting TK of the indigenous peoples of Taiwan confronts several problems. As to the safeguard of knowledge rights, the most serious defect of the protection of non-intellectual property right regime is that legal institutions of prior informed consent and benefit sharing have not yet been established. Regarding passive protection, the problem is that Taiwan is neither a member of WIPO nor a signatory country of CBD, UPOV and Bern Convention, hence there is no guarantee that databases and register established in Taiwan would be adopted by patent offices around the world and accepted as examining references to prevent biopiracy. Regarding positive protection, the most significant problem is that it is too difficult to identify right holders. The major reason is that traditional territories are now too indistinct to identify who should share the benefits from the knowledge. As to trade secret, private property system and market economy are now widespread within indigenous tribes, adopting trade secret regime to protect traditional knowledge arises critical problems. As to the protection of the system that maintaining and innovating knowledge, the most vital problem is that traditional customs are vanishing rapidly and autonomy of tribes becomes more and more powerless so that it is not easy to restore the original living style that ensure intimate human–environmental relationship, which is essential for the creation of traditional knowledge

(37(2):211-219)Biological Control of Coconut Leaf Beetle in Taiwan

臺灣省農業試驗所於民國72年自關島引進紅胸葉蟲釉小蜂（Tetrastichus brontispae）供可可椰子紅胸葉蟲（Brontispa longissima）之防治。自民國73年l月起至75年6月止先後分別在高雄縣澄清湖、大樹、湖內，屏東縣林邊、里港，臺束縣知本、建和、東河、成功，花蓮縣豐濱、吉安、鳳林，雲林縣斗南，嘉義縣大埔以及臺北市植物園等處遭受紅胸葉蟲為害之椰樹上釋放釉小蜂共l06次，共計143,082隻成蜂，各地區之釋放次數為l至14次，寄生率可達90％以上。該蜂釋放後都能在各該地立足，且能自行分散至鄰近椰子產區，其中澄清湖、大樹、林邊以及知本等地均已獲得明顯之防治成效。釉小蜂可寄生於紅胸葉蟲之老熟幼蟲及蛹齡l－6天之蛹，而以1－4天之蛹較為所好。該蜂在25°C，70～80％RH時完成一世代需19～21天，成蟲飼以純蜜壽命為雌蟲2～20天，平均14.l 天；雄蟲2～18天，平均為11.6天；卵期為3天，幼蟲期有三齡，約需6天。前蛹期l天，蛹期9～11 天。每隻被寄生之寄主蛹可羽化出釉小蜂3～48隻，平均20隻。雌雄蜂性比平均為3.5 : 10。 The coconut leaf beetle, Brontispa longissima Gestro (Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera), is a serious pest of the coconut palm in Taiwan. The larval and pupal parasitoid, Tetrastichus brontispae (Ferr.) (Eulophidae, Hymenoptera), was introduced into Taiwan from Guam in November, 1983. A total of 106 releases of about 143,082 adults were released to Kaohsiung, Pingtung, Taitung, Hualien, Taitung, Chiayi, Yunlin and Taipei from January, 1984 through June, 1986. It is evidently that the introduced parasitoid has already established in Taiwan and hence to perform as a good biological control agent of the coconut leaf beetle. T. brontispae can parasitize the mature larvae and pupae of B. longissima, however apparently preferred to oviposite in 1 to 4 days old pupae. Under the room temperature of 21°C and 70─80% RH, the parasitoid required 19 to 21 days to complete its life cycle from egg to adult. The duration of egg, larval, prepupal and pupal stages were approximately 3, 6, 1, and 9 to 11 days, respectively. The longevity of adult male and female averaged 11.6 and 14.1 days, respectively. Generally, an average of 20 parasitoids were emerged from one host pupa, the sex ratio was 3.5 (female) : 1 (male)