綠豆象(CALLOSOBRUCHUS CHINENSIS)產卵及交尾行為的適應(3/3)

綠豆象是重要的倉貯害蟲，由於生存環 境穩定、寄主資源豐富，往往導致其族群的 大發生。加上其幼蟲為內食性，寄主豆內資 源有限，常有幼蟲競爭現象發生，因此容易 選汰出具有下述適應特性的雌蟲。一般雌蟲 具有辨識寄主品質﹝如：種類、大小或豆上 卵數﹞的能力，而偏好在品質較佳的寄主上 產卵；當棲所中寄主品質較差時，雌蟲往往 減少產卵，降低生殖花費，以尋找較佳的棲 所；此外，成蟲同時發生時，雄蟲常因求偶 干擾雌蟲產卵選擇，而雌蟲可因應寄主的品 質和雄蟲的多寡而有不同的再交尾機率。本 研究目的即在探討這些適應性行為的共通 現象及其機制。 本研究以改變雄蟲密度來探討雌蟲在不 同干擾程度下的適應行為，如：在寄主豆上 的檢查時間、產卵時間、產卵量、及產卵分 佈的改變，並探明其適應意義。結果發現， 隨雄蟲密度的增加，雌蟲花費在產卵上的時 間顯著減短，產卵量降低，但同時亦伴隨著 產卵擁擠度(m*, mean crowding)降低的現 象。因此產卵過程中雌蟲必然在產卵計策 (oviposition tactics)上作了調整；亦即，雌蟲 有可能採行混合型產卵法則(mixture of absolute and relative rule)，以達到較佳之適 應。 藉著由行為觀察所得的產卵決定、產卵 行為的序列資料及寄主大小特性等資料，經 統計分析可建立產卵行為法則，可以瞭解豆 象依循何種法則進行寄主選擇而呈現由大 至小依序接受寄主豆產卵的行為。試驗中以 4 種不同大小之紅豆供豆象產卵，發現較大 的寄主豆被接受產卵的比例較高；以重量分 析，結果相似。當以重量加權來預測不同大 小寄主豆的產卵數時，發現觀測值與期望值 間沒有顯著差異，因此寄主豆重量確是影響 產卵之重要因子。分析1 至3 天的產卵分布 發現，較重的寄主先被豆象利用，當大部份 乾淨寄主被產卵後，較重的1 卵豆才被接受 產卵。顯示產卵過程豆象可能比較寄主豆品 質，或因應環境品質進行產卵接受機率之調 整。Adzuki bean weevil (Callosobruchus chinensis (L.)) is an important stored product pest. The ecological condition of the stored products provides the pest a great opportunity for population outbreak. It tends to lead severe larval competition in a bean and oviposition competition among beans by females. Females with adaptive behavior are always selected when resource are limited. Bruchid females thus developed the ability to discriminate the quality of hosts (e.g., host species, sizes, or the number of eggs on the bean), and prefer to lay eggs on hosts of higher quality. Besides, females will decrease their fecundity to reduce cost of reproduction in a patch with hosts of lower quality. 2 Meanwhile, when males and females emerge at the same time, the solicitation of males always causes harassment on females' oviposition decision. The remating frequency of the female may change to adapt to both the quality of hosts and the number of males. This study will focus on exploring the generalization and underling mechanism of those adaptive behaviors.By manipulation of male density, the adaptations of oviposition behavior of the females can be evaluated from calculation the egg dispersion index (m*, mean crowding), total eggs laid, visitation time and frequency to the host bean, and oviposition time, etc. It shows that, the oviposition time decreases as the male density increases. But the mean crowding decreases as the male density increases. Therefore, there might be some adaptations in the changes of different oviposition tactics; such as shifting between two or more oviposition rules or using mixture rule. These ideas will be explored in the proceeding research. Data from recording the behavioral sequences of this insect can be analyzed to formulate the oviposition rule. Based on the oviposition rule, we can explain why the female may choose largest bean available for oviposition. In the next experiment, each female was provided with 64 adzuki beans of 4 different sizes. Numbers of eggs laid on seeds of different sizes (or weights) were recorded each day for three days. It shows that the proportion of 1-egg seeds increased with increasing size of hosts. Similar result was obtained from analyzing the proportion of 1-egg seeds by host weight. Further, numbers of eggs laid by the female on different size hosts were predicted by weighting the seeds weight. The result shows that there is no significant difference between observation and the prediction by c2-test. Based on the mean weight of the seed with various eggs on first to third days, it is found that heavier seeds were accepted to lay eggs first, while until most of the clean seeds were laid one egg, heavier 1-egg seeds were accepted. Therefore, the female may compare the quality of sequential encountered seeds or adjusted acceptance probability according to environmental change in her egg-laying process

霧社水庫集水區的螞蟻多樣性結構與功能研究(I)

螞蟻分佈於廣泛的棲所中且在各種生 態系中扮演不同的生態功能角色，因此螞 蟻群聚常被用來作為評估不同生態系的環 境狀況和管理措施的生物指標。我們假設 螞蟻群聚在我們研究地區的不同生態系 中，因環境因子、土壤狀況、人為干擾和 管理措施而有顯著不同，且螞蟻能對廣大 範圍的變動提供良好評估，因此有潛力成 為不同生態系生物多樣性現況與變動的良 好生物指標。為評估此種功能，我們嚐試 尋找對各種生物多樣性改變敏感的螞蟻類 群，建立螞蟻種豐度、種歧異度和種組成 與環境因子、植生結構和土壤動物的相關 關係，並建立以螞蟻為中心的食物網，以 瞭解螞蟻的生態功能。 選擇高海拔之翠峰至鳶峰一帶設一試 驗區，區內選擇草生地、次生林、原始林、 廢耕地等不同生態系，每月調查螞蟻相之 組成，由草生地、原始林、次生林、廢耕 地之螞蟻組成來比較不同生態系之生物歧 異度變異；由次生林、原始林之螞蟻組成 調查則可瞭解演替過程之歧異度變動；透 過原始林與草生地螞蟻相比較則可釐清人 為活動對螞蟻歧異度之干擾；而進行廢耕 地、次生林與原始林之螞蟻相比較則可量 化及評估人為操作對生物多樣性之作用， 進而作為生物多樣性維護與復育之參考。 本研究探明螞蟻的種類及組成，優勢 種週年數量變動，空間分佈變化及其生物 歧異度之變動，並建立不同生態系、不同 演替階段、不同管理措施或人為干擾之螞 蟻群聚時空分佈與動態與其他植生分佈之 相關性，並評估螞蟻作為生態系品質與保 育管理措施等生物指標的可行性。Ant species distributed over a wide range of habitats and played many different ecological function roles in varied ecosystems. Therefore, ant species assemblages have been used as biological indicators of environmental condition and management practices in many different ecosystems. We hypothesize that assemblages of ant species in different ecosystems of our study area will show significant differences depending on environmental factors, soil condition, human perturbations, and management practices. In addition, they are capable of providing an assessment over a wide range of stresses. So, they may have potential as a biological indicator of biodiversity condition in many different ecosystems in our study area. To assess this hypothesis, we try to find the group of ants that are sensitive to provide early warning for changes of biodiversity in the ecosystem. Associations between ant species, and environmental conditions and vegetative structure will be analyzed first. Trophic webs in different ecosystems will be constructed then, to clarify plant-ant-soil arthropod interrelationship. One high-latitude area was chosen as research area. In this area, ant fauna will be surveyed every month in various ecosystems of grassland, secondary forest, virgin forest, and stop-cultivated land. From the 2 comparison of ant composition in grassland, virgin forest and secondary forest, we can understand the change patterns of biodiversity in different ecosystems. However, the biodiversity changes in succession process can be revealed by the comparison between ant composition in secondary and virgin forest. By comparing the ant fauna among virgin forest and grassland, we will understand the interference of human activity on the biodiversity. In addition, quantification and evaluation of human manipulation on the impact of biodiversity will also obtained by comparing the ant fauna among stop-cultivated land, secondary forest and virgin forest. This result can serve as a reference for the future work on the maintenance and recovery of biodiversity. In this study, we unveil the ant fauna, the population fluctuation of the dominant species, the changes of spatial distribution and biodiversity. In addition, we will analyze the relationships among soil types, environmental factors and ant community in various ecosystems. Furthermore, we can evaluated the suitability of using ant as a biological indicator of ecosystem quality and conservation managing tactics judging from the relationships of ant community's time and spatial distribution and plant community and established from various ecosystems, succession stages, managing tactics or human interference

四紋豆象(Callosobruchus maculatus)之配偶選擇、產卵決策與生活史策略

有關豆象的研究指出，豆象雄蟲交尾 時所傳遞的物質中包含營養物質，而該營 養物質由雌蟲吸收後，會轉而貢獻到蟲體 及生殖組織上，因而使得雌性壽命、生殖 力及所產子代品質增加。而雄性提供之營 養物質的量在個體之間有差異，其會受雄 性個體體型大小所影響。由於雄蟲之體型 大小使得其所能提供之營養物質在量上 面有所變化，進而使得未來與其交尾之雌 蟲獲益程度不同，故豆象雌蟲在遭遇不同 特性如體型大小之雄蟲時，是否會表現出 雌性選擇，是值得探討的。本試驗以綠豆 象為試驗對象，藉由提供綠豆象雌蟲不同 體型大小雄蟲之組合，透過行為觀察紀 錄，嘗試了解不同體型大小之雄蟲所提供 之效應，對交尾行為、交尾結果及雌蟲生 殖力的影響。由試驗結果來看，綠豆象雌 蟲對生殖力、子代品質及交尾行為之影響 力較大;雄蟲之體型大小對生殖力、子代 品質、交尾偏好及交尾行為無任何影響。 然而雄蟲在求偶行為的表現上有差異，此 差異會影響交尾時間的長短，進而影響雌 蟲之生殖力。由交尾成功與否在拒絕行為 上的差異，可看出綠豆象雌蟲似乎有表現 出雌性選擇，而雌蟲選擇配偶的標準與雄 蟲之體型大小無關，可能是其他雄性特 質，如雄蟲的求偶能力，或其他未檢驗之 雄性因子。The studies on animals indicated that their life history and reproductive strategy could be affected by some male traits, such as male body size, when such traits actually influence female fecundity, longevity, offspring quality or mating behavior. Studies of seed beetle indicated that the male transfers considerable nutrients to the female via ejaculates. Such nutrients are incorporated into female’s somatic and reproductive tissues, which in turn increase female’s longevity, fecundity and offspring quality. Male’s nutritive contribution can vary with male size and thus it may vary considerably among individuals. Because the amount of nutrient that females received may be influenced by body size of males they mated with, females may benefit in several ways by discriminating different males, that is, females may exhibit “female choice”. In this study, we examined the influence of male body size of adzuki seed beetle, Collosobruchus chinensis, on mating success, mating behavior and female fecundity. Our results showed that, female’s body size of adzuki seed beetle represented a major influence on lifetime fecundity, offspring quality and mating behavior. While male body size showed little or no effects on female fecundity, offspring quality and mating behavior. However, the courtship behavior showed considerable variation among males, and the courtship duration was positively correlated with mating duration. This result indicates that male behavior may influence female fecundity by affecting the persistence of mating. On the other hand, the analysis of rejection behavior showed a significant difference between mating or non-mating pairs, which implied female choice exists in the mating decision. The representation of female choice was not affected by male body size, instead, it may be influenced by other male traits, such as male courtship ability, or other male effects which remains to be explored

四紋豆象(Callosobruchus maculatus)之繁殖行為與生活史策略(2/3)

豆象（Callosobruchus spp.）內食 性的生態特性，使得雌豆象對寄主的選 擇行為一直被視為攸關子代的存活競 爭的一種適應性行為。因此，雌豆象搜 尋的行為法則一直是產卵行為研究的 主要課題之一。本研究以行為錄影記錄 及彙整豆象搜尋經歷資料，配合功能性 編碼分析方式建立模式以瞭解豆象搜 尋過程中之訊息處理與決策。此行為分 析系統的建立預期將對探討生物訊息 處理過程及對行為生態學之研究有相 當助益。Animal cognition involves information processing and decision-making in a dynamic fashion. An apparatus to reveal the structure of cognitive processing is to encode the sequential behaviors into functional schemes so that the behavioral database can be dissected and reassembled without being constrained by unrealistic model assumptions. Specifically this set of new analyzing techniques is applied on the cognitive processing of the female bean weevil, Callosobruchus maculatus, which explores environment mainly for the ovipositional purpose. First, using functional coding schemes, individual female bean weevil’s longitudinal behavioral trajectory across a geometric landscape is coded into a two-level hierarchy code sequences. With each code standing for a biological state and, at the same time, representing a random generating algorithm, the main use of this algorithmic composition is to serve as a spatial-temporal platform to explore pattern recognitions on the beetle’s cognitive processing. The underpinning is that statistically this hierarchy is a new way of summarizing behavioral data by mapping out possible non-stationarity of the underlying cognitive mechanisms behind the observed behavioral database. Consequently our approach is very useful to preserve the individual beetle’s local as well as global cognitive templates and patterns, and its temporal orders driven by physiological outputs as responses to the changes in environmental conditions. As a final product, a structural system of recognized patterns on a coherent data-driven timescale potentially is a very valuable model in cognitive science and behavioral ecology

綠豆象(CALLOSOBRUCHUS CHINENSIS)產卵及交尾行為的適應(2/3)

綠豆象是重要的倉貯害蟲，由於生存環 境穩定、寄主資源豐富，往往導致其族群的 大發生。加上其幼蟲為內食性，寄主豆內資 源有限，常有幼蟲競爭現象發生，因此容易 選汰出具有下述適應特性的雌蟲。一般雌蟲 具有辨識寄主品質﹝如：種類、大小或豆上 卵數﹞的能力，而偏好在品質較佳的寄主上 產卵；當棲所中寄主品質較差時，雌蟲往往 減少產卵，降低生殖花費，以尋找較佳的棲 所；此外，成蟲同時發生時，雄蟲常因求偶 干擾雌蟲產卵選擇，而雌蟲可因應寄主的品 質和雄蟲的多寡而有不同的再交尾機率。本 研究目的即在探討這些適應性行為的共通 現象及其機制。 本研究以改變雄蟲密度來探討雌蟲在不 同干擾程度下的適應行為，如：在寄主豆上 的檢查時間、產卵時間、產卵量、及產卵分 佈的改變，並探明其適應意義。結果發現， 隨雄蟲密度的增加，雌蟲花費在產卵上的時 間顯著減短，產卵量降低，但同時亦伴隨著 產卵擁擠度(m*, mean crowding)降低的現 象。因此產卵過程中雌蟲必然在產卵計策 (oviposition tactics)上作了調整；亦即，雌蟲 有可能採行混合型產卵法則(mixture of absolute and relative rule)，以達到較佳之適 應。 藉著由行為觀察所得的產卵決定、產卵 行為的序列資料及寄主大小特性等資料，經 統計分析可建立產卵行為法則，可以瞭解豆 象依循何種法則進行寄主選擇而呈現由大 至小依序接受寄主豆產卵的行為。試驗中以 4 種不同大小之紅豆供豆象產卵，發現較大 的寄主豆被接受產卵的比例較高；以重量分 析，結果相似。當以重量加權來預測不同大 小寄主豆的產卵數時，發現觀測值與期望值 間沒有顯著差異，因此寄主豆重量確是影響 產卵之重要因子。分析1 至3 天的產卵分布 發現，較重的寄主先被豆象利用，當大部份 乾淨寄主被產卵後，較重的1 卵豆才被接受 產卵。顯示產卵過程豆象可能比較寄主豆品 質，或因應環境品質進行產卵接受機率之調 整。Adzuki bean weevil (Callosobruchus chinensis (L.)) is an important stored product pest. The ecological condition of the stored products provides the pest a great opportunity for population outbreak. It tends to lead severe larval competition in a bean and oviposition competition among beans by females. Females with adaptive behavior are always selected when resource are limited. Bruchid females thus developed the ability to discriminate the quality of hosts (e.g., host species, sizes, or the number of eggs on the bean), and prefer to lay eggs on hosts of higher quality. Besides, females will decrease their fecundity to reduce cost of reproduction in a patch with hosts of lower quality. 2 Meanwhile, when males and females emerge at the same time, the solicitation of males always causes harassment on females' oviposition decision. The remating frequency of the female may change to adapt to both the quality of hosts and the number of males. This study will focus on exploring the generalization and underling mechanism of those adaptive behaviors.By manipulation of male density, the adaptations of oviposition behavior of the females can be evaluated from calculation the egg dispersion index (m*, mean crowding), total eggs laid, visitation time and frequency to the host bean, and oviposition time, etc. It shows that, the oviposition time decreases as the male density increases. But the mean crowding decreases as the male density increases. Therefore, there might be some adaptations in the changes of different oviposition tactics; such as shifting between two or more oviposition rules or using mixture rule. These ideas will be explored in the proceeding research. Data from recording the behavioral sequences of this insect can be analyzed to formulate the oviposition rule. Based on the oviposition rule, we can explain why the female may choose largest bean available for oviposition. In the next experiment, each female was provided with 64 adzuki beans of 4 different sizes. Numbers of eggs laid on seeds of different sizes (or weights) were recorded each day for three days. It shows that the proportion of 1-egg seeds increased with increasing size of hosts. Similar result was obtained from analyzing the proportion of 1-egg seeds by host weight. Further, numbers of eggs laid by the female on different size hosts were predicted by weighting the seeds weight. The result shows that there is no significant difference between observation and the prediction by χ2-test. Based on the mean weight of the seed with various eggs on first to third days, it is found that heavier seeds were accepted to lay eggs first, while until most of the clean seeds were laid one egg, heavier 1-egg seeds were accepted. Therefore, the female may compare the quality of sequential encountered seeds or adjusted acceptance probability according to environmental change in her egg-laying process