“Natura 2000” ecological network in the aspect of sustainable development

The work discusses the operation of the “Natura 2000” European Ecological Network in aspects related to sustainable development, i.e. taking into account economic undertakings and planned business projects which conform to the idea of sound management of natural resources. The legal basis for the Natura 2000 network is the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC and the Birds Directive 79/409/EEC, which have been transposed into the Polish law, especially in the Act of 16 April 2004 on the protection of nature. Both environmental conservation directives seek to establish an ecological network of protected areas (so-called Natura 2000 sites) across Europe. In Poland, Natura 2000 comprises Special Protection Areas for birds (SPAs, or bird sites), Special Areas of Conservation (SACs, or habitat sites) and Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) (based on the Act on the protection of nature). Studies have demonstrated that Poland currently has a total of 141 SPAs with an area of 55,228 km2, which makes up 15.6% of Poland’s land area, and 364 SACs occupying 2.89 million ha, which represents 8.95% of the total area of Poland. The Natura 2000 European Ecological Network Programme supports the principle of sustainable development in the context of guidelines set out in Art. 6 (3) and (4) of the Habitats Directive (92/42/EEC) under which any plan or project which is likely to have a significant impact on a Natura 2000 site should be subject to appropriate assessment to determine how it affects the site. Environmental impact assessment is a preventative nature conservation tool which, based on thorough consideration of different implementation options of specific projects combined with public opinion research, helps eliminate solutions that fail to comply with the overriding principle of sustainable development

Ecological consequences of deforestation and afforestation on a post-arable land: Changes in the composition and structure of plant communities and transformations of oak-hornbeam habitats and soil

The species composition and structure of secondary communities developed after deforestation in fertile oak-hornbeam habitats and afforestation of post-arable land from Tilio-Carpinetum and Melitti-Carpinetum circles in the Knyszyńska Forest have been studied. The analysis was based on 178 relevés made by Braun-Blanquet method, including 47 relevés of oak-hornbeam natural communities, 59 relevés of post-clear-cutting communities after deforestation and 72 releves of five secondary forest communities, 30-59 years old forming the first generation of trees on post-arable land. The types of habitats, types of soil and surface geological formations were identified, while soil samples were subjected to chemical analysis.            The degree of deterioration of secondary communities on post-arable land was found to be the greater the shorter the time from abandonment of agricultural use of a given area. As a result of former cultivation the soil has been degraded and the composition and structure of plant communities have been altered. The identified vegetation patches show changes characteristic of IV and V phase of degeneration and deformations manifested as cespitization, apophytization and bryophytization. The oak-hornbeam habitats represent the weakly (d) or strongly (D) degraded habitats, with the soil upper layer transformed by tilling into a ploughing horizon (Ap), with changes in the form of humus and considerable simplification in morphology of soil profiles

Model of anthropogenic disturbance impact on the relationships between vegetation and population dynamics of Carex digitata

The aim of the paper is to define a relationship between the diversity in structural features of the Carex digitata population and the dynamics of natural and disturbed anthropogenically oak-hornbeam communities in the cycle of 29-year research (1987-2015) conducted on permanent plots in the Knyszyńska Forest. The results of the research indicate that the population dynamics corresponds significantly to the community dynamics, whereas the existing interrelations are a response of Carex digitata population to dynamic vegetation changes undergoing in natural habitats (fluctuation) and under the influence of anthropogenic disturbances (degeneration as a result of pinetization followed by regeneration). This is reflected in a different spatial organization, age structure, size diversity of individual plants, as well as in various mechanisms regulating the number of individual plants in a population. Models of population dynamics in the light of dynamics of the natural and disturbed forest communities can be explained from the viewpoint of equilibrium and non-equilibrium in the nature. It has been proved that in stable communities, where variations in vegetation have a character of little fluctuations and indicate a state of a relevant equilibrium in the nature, the population of Carex digitata also reaches a phase of relevant equilibrium. In such a phase the size of the sedge population is small and changes in the number of individuals in the 29-year cycle slightly fluctuate. A different variation in the population features has been reported in the anthropogenically disturbed community. Processes of degeneration and regeneration are accompanied by rapid dynamic vegetation changes (a state of non-equilibrium) and rapid changes in structural features of the Carex digitata population. The sedge reaction to the dynamic variations in the communities can be explained by a different life strategy which differentiates morphological and developmental features of individuals and thus determines variation of properties of the population

Constructions of logical expressions in analysis of vegetation transformations

The paper reports on the effects and range of anthropogenic pressure exerted on forest communities of the Knyszyńska Forest. A comparison between the potential natural vegetation and real vegetation gives an idea on the degree of damage to forest communities, which has been classified in ecological modelling. Logical expressions have been applied in ecological modelling for spatial analyses of vegetation changes carried out by the program ArcView GIS. The logical expressions applied to the GIS spatial database have permitted finding correlations of occurrence of particular types of the present-day real vegetation (in particular the post-clear-cutting communities, young tree communities and secondary forest communities) relative to the present-day potential natural vegetation. The data obtained in this way have been used in analysis of the scale and range of changes in the forest communities of the Knyszyńska Forest caused by forest management measures.Results of the study have shown that in the Knyszyńska Forest, the secondary communities occupy as much as 88.3% (919.56 km2), while the oldest tree-stands representing natural communities (of 100 - 120 years of age) occupy only 11.7% (122.28 km2). Among the secondary communities the greatest area is occupied by the secondary forest communities representing the stickstand and oldgrowth phases (66.9%) aged from 30 to about 100 years. The contribution of young tree stands - aged from 10 to 30 years is smaller - 16.6%, and that of post-clear-cutting and forest crops forming directly after clear cutting and aged up to 10 years is still smaller - of 4.8%. In the young-tree stands (16.6%) and forest secondary communities (66.9%) the largest is the contribution of those with domination of pine trees (Pinus sylvestris) from artificial reforestation, making 11.2 and 55%, respectively, while the contribution of other secondary communities is much lower

Changes in the life strategy and adaptation of the reproductive strategy of Carex digitata to disturbances factors

The aim of the paper was to define a relationship between the structure and dynamics of the Carex digitata population. Additionally, modifications in the development of an individual and its life strategy in disturbed communities were analysed. The species was studied in the natural and anthropogenically disturbed oak-hornbeam communities over 23-years of research (1987-2009) conducted on permanent plots in the Knyszyńska Forest. The results of the research indicate that in the natural community, C. digitata individuals reach the phase of flowering and fruition in the 4th year of the life cycle, while in the disturbed community dominated by pine trees - in the 2nd year of the life cycle. Modification of the C. digitata life cycle can be attributed to different reactions of individuals to disturbances in the community, microclimatic, phenological and biocenotic balance to which C. digitata is exposed as a results of the degeneration (pinetization) of the community. The sedge responds differently to specific ecological conditions in the natural and anthropogenically disturbed oak-hornbeam communities due to different life strategies, which affect morphological and developmental features of individual plants, and thus induces changes in the structure and dynamics of populations. This is reflected in a different spatial organization, age structure, size diversity of the individual plants, as well as in various mechanisms regulating the number of individual plants in a population

Evaluation of current status, threats and means of protection of heaths Arctostaphylo-Callunetum R.Tx. et Prsg 1940 in the Czerwony Bór (NE Poland)

The study was performed to identify, delimit and evaluate the current status of Arctostaphylo-Callunetum R.Tx. et Prsg 1940 heaths, as well as to point out possible threats to these communities and means of their protection. The heaths are in Czerwony Bór (PLH 200018) in Podlaskie voivodeship, NE Poland, in the area included in the Natura 2000 network. The study was performed in 2008 with the use of GPS method over the study area of 3,784.04 ha.The area of Czerwony Bór includes 8 stands with dry heaths of Arctostaphylo-Callunetum of the total area of 21.7 ha. They are represented by typically developed and well-preserved patches of vegetation (90%) of the area of 19.5 ha and not so well preserved patches (10%) occupying the area of 2.2 ha. In general, their natural value in the area of study is high and the representative character, degree of preservation of the structure and functions are excellent. The main threat to the dry heaths Arctostaphylo-Callunetum in the area of Czerwony Bór comes from the forest management procedures aimed at reclamation of the area left after the army training grounds,reforestation in the form of large-area single-species forest plantations, forestation of the land that has not been forested earlier. In the areas where no plantation have been started the process of secondary succession is observed. As a result of this process heaths are replaced by forest-thicket formations. The active protection of the heaths in the area studied should include prevention of secondary succession, mowing and removal of forest-thicket formations and changes in forest management policy towards maintenance of open space by periodical removal of vegetation to bare soil

Wind Energy and Multicriteria Analysis in Making Decisions on the Location of Wind Farms: A Case Study in the North-Eastern of Poland

This chapter presents an investigation of different methods of multicriteria analysis and different rules of proceedings that have to be taken into account for making decision about location of a wind farm with application in the north-eastern (NE) Poland. Ten multicriteria analyses were discussed taking into account the main criteria on which they are based on utility functions (MAUT, AHP, and DEMATEL), relationship outranking (ELECTRE, PROMETHEE, and ARROW-RAYNAUD), distances (TOPSIS), and decision support (BORDA ranking methods and their modified and COPELAND). Taking into account of nine criteria that should be met by the location of 15 wind turbines in Krynki and Szudzialowo communities, the main three criteria (C3, C8, and C9) were found to differentiate location of eight wind turbines (T-6–T-13), according to two variants (I and II). The Borda ranking method proved that from among the two variants considered, the more suitable location of wind turbines is second variant W II than first variant W I. Variant W II had a higher altitude of the terrain (C3) and less risk of impact on birds (C8) and bats species (C9) than variant W I

Changes in the photosynthetic apparatus of plants on chosen roads in Białystok

Variation in the photosynthetic apparatus of plants, in relation to the species composition and structure of plant communities, has been studied in transects along selected roads in Białystok, characterised with various intensity of traffic. Concentrations of total chlorophyll, chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids were measured in green biomass from 3 non-forest transects and 1 forest transect localised along the main roads. The concentrations of chlorophyll in green biomass from the city transects were compared with those from two reference transects in the centre of Knyszyńska Forest, beyond direct impact of road traffic. The effect of the distance of transects from the roads (4-5 m, 14-15 m and 24-25 m) and the main groups of species making plant communities (in green biomass of trees, bushes, herbal plants and moss) was also analysed.The concentration of total chlorophyll in green biomass from non-forest transects varies from 29.8 mg/g fresh mass to 66.1 mg/g fresh mass, while it is 38.3 mg/g fresh mass from the reference transect, outside the city and beyond direct influence of road traf- fic. The analogous values of total chlorophyll concentration in green biomass from the forest transects are higher than in the green biomass from non-forest transects, both in the city (70.9 mg/g fresh mass) and from the reference transect (90.4 mg/g fresh mass). According to the results, the content of total chlorophyll in plants is correlated with the intensity of traffic and the distance from the road. Changes in the photosynthetic apparatus depend also on the vertical structure and species composition of the vegetation patches studied. Higher concentrations of chlorophyll in the plants growing in the forest transect than in those in non-forest ones in the city points to the greater role of forested areas as a biological barrier. Their biological effectiveness considerably depends on the floristic composition, so the selection of species in designing of green areas should be made taking into account the effect of seasonal changes and density of individuals per a unit area

Variability of green biomass content in plant communities along selected traffic routes in Białystok

Variability of green biomass quantity in plant communities found in study transects established along selected traffic routes in Białystok was studied. The study was conducted in a total of four transects including three in non-forest plant communities and one in a forest community located in the vicinity of Białystok’s main outbound roads. The effect of different distance of the study fields from the traffic routes (4-5 m, 14-15 m and 24-25 m) was taken into account. Results obtained for biomass variability in city transects were then compared to the biomass values recorded in both forest and non-forest communities in two standard transects in the centre of Knyszynska Forest, located away from traffic routes. The study demonstrates that total green biomass of plants collected from the study fields depends primarily on the floristic composition of the plant communities under study rather than on the distance of the study fields from traffic routes. As for the city transects, greater total green biomass was recorded in non-forest plant communities (1457.33 g – 3161.65 g) than in the forest community analysed (255.39 g), which is mainly attributable to high green biomass content identified in the floristically richest group of meadow species from the class Molinio-Arrhenatheretea. Total green biomass in non-forest and forest plant communities in the city is greater than outside the municipal area (233.43 g and 134.69 g, respectively), which is predominantly a consequence of higher diversity of plants

Antifungal activity of the rhizome extracts of Pulsatilla vulgaris against Candida glabrata

Pulsatilla vulgaris Mill. (“Pasque flower”, Ranunculaceae) is rare and a threatened plant species in Europe. It produces biologically active secondary metabolites. P. vulgaris is also known herbal drug used for centuries in traditional Chinese and Korean medicine. The rhizomes of P. vulgaris have been traditionally used for treatment of headaches, neuralgia, insomnia, hyperactivity, bacterial skin infections, septicemia, cough and bronchitis. In the present study, the extracts of leaves and rhizomes of P. vulgaris were evaluated for their antifungal, antimicrobial, antimalarial and cytotoxic activities. The results showed the antifungal activity of crude extracts of the rhizome of P. vulgaris against the yeast Candida glabrata with an IC50 of 11 µg/ml. These results indicate that the selected medicinal plant could be further investigated for identifying compounds that may be responsible for the observed activity and that may represent new leads in fungal drug discovery. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.322889