A puzzle about enkratic reasoning

Enkratic reasoning—reasoning from believing that you ought to do something to an intention to do that thing—seems good. But there is a puzzle about how it could be. Good reasoning preserves correctness, other things equal. But enkratic reasoning does not preserve correctness. This is because what you ought to do depends on your epistemic position, but what it is correct to intend does not. In this paper, I motivate these claims and thus show that there is a puzzle. I then argue that the best solution is to deny that correctness is always independent of your epistemic position. As I explain, a notable upshot is that a central epistemic norm directs us to believe, not simply what is true, but what we are in a position to know

Hermeneutics of Ceteris Paribus in the African Context

This article has provided a philosophical discourse approach in deconstructing Ceteris Paribus (CP) as applied in contemporary Africa. The concept of CP, which affirm the notion of ‘all things are equal’ does not always hold true in the real world. The author has gone beyond the normal interpretation of the word shock, which is making it impossible for the CP concept to hold true in reality. The paper has unraveled critical discourses spanning corruption element as a key factor in the current state of Africa’s economic malaise. It is therefore incumbent on African scholars and professionals to continue their strides in promoting critical hermeneutic space, pursued through empirical endeavours or otherwise in support of developing a philosophy that is based on pragmatism for the enhancement of economic methodology, focused on the continent’s pathway of (sustained) economic development

Writing, Cognition, and the Nature of the Judicial Function

Prior commentators, including many judges, have observed that writing provides an important discipline on the judicial decisionmaking process. Those commentators have uniformly assumed that the effect will always be positive - that is, that a decision rendered pursuant to a process that includes a written justification will always be better (however better is to be measured) than a decision unaccompanied by writing. According to this view, we should always, all things being equal, prefer a decision accompanied by an opinion to one without. All things are not equal, of course, and there are many situations in which the costs of generating an opinion uncontestably outweigh the benefits - such as in the case of evidentiary rulings made during the course of trial. Still, the understanding remains that writing will result in some positive contribution to the process. This article calls that assumption into question. Drawing upon an emergent body of psychological research into the effects of both oral and written verbalization on decisionmaking effectiveness, it argues that certain types of decisions are likely to be worse if made via a process that incorporates writing. Decisions involving complex, context-intensive judgments that are best resolved via the weighing of largely inarticulable considerations are susceptible to a phenomenon called verbal overshadowing. In these situations attempts to justify a decision can lead the decisionmaker to focus on more readily verbalizable features of the problem to the exclusion of those inputs that are more important to proper analysis. The article also investigates the significance of writing to the fulfillment of the other two (aside from accuracy-enhancement) primary functions of judicial opinions, namely the creation and memorialization of precedent and the enhancement of legitimacy, and to consider the differing ways in which these functions are implicated at the trial and appellate levels. The goal is not so much to generate definitive answers as to better identify the costs and benefits provided by written opinions so as to more completely ground ongoing debates concerning when opinions should be issued, what form they should take, and who should author them

Hermeneutics of Ceteris Paribus in the African Context

This article has provided a philosophical discourse approach in deconstructing Ceteris Paribus (CP) as applied in contemporary Africa. The concept of CP, which affirm the notion of ‘all things are equal’ does not always hold true in the real world. The author has gone beyond the normal interpretation of the word shock, which is making it impossible for the CP concept to hold true in reality. The paper has unraveled critical discourses spanning corruption element as a key factor in the current state of Africa’s economic malaise. It is therefore incumbent on African scholars and professionals to continue their strides in promoting critical hermeneutic space, pursued through empirical endeavours or otherwise in support of developing a philosophy that is based on pragmatism for the enhancement of economic methodology, focused on the continent’s pathway of (sustained) economic development

Existence Claims in the Posterior Analytics

Existence Claims in the Posterior Analytics Richard McKirahan This paper treats several questions about the place of existence claims in theory of science presented in the Posterior Analytics. On the basis of a close reading of the text it shows that Aristotle identifies existence claims as a distinct kind of scientific principles (alongside definitions and common principles), that what these principles declare to exist are the subjects as opposed to the attributes that the science studies (triangles, as opposed to the property of having angles equal to two right angles), and not all the subjects, but a subset of them, the primitive subjects from whose existence can be demonstrated the existence the remaining (derivative) subjects. The paper goes on to discuss the role that existence claims play in demonstrative science, arguing that they do not occur as premises in demonstrations (which state per se attributes of subjects whose existence the demonstrations presuppose) but that they are required for two reasons: first because for Aristotle there is no science of the non-existent, and second because the per se relations between subjects and attributes, which are the premises and conclusions of demonstrations, are grounded in the essences of their subjects and attributes and only things that exist can have essences. It takes up the question whether scientific existence claims are general (triangles or tigers exist tout court) or restricted to the subject genus of the science in question (triangles exist as subjects of geometry, tigers as subjects of biology) and answers that the latter is in effect the case even though the claims will typically be stated generally. It shows that the primitive existence claims satisfy the criteria for scientific principles stated in APo 1.2, and concludes with a discussion of the difficult question whether Aristotle is committed to the view that the subjects of sciences exist of necessity. It concludes that there is no need for tigers to have existed forever in the past and for them to exist forever in the future in order for to be a subject for scientific knowledge; Aristotle is not committed to holding that triangles must always exist even if no individual triangle always exist. When he says that the universals with which scientific proofs exist are “always” (aei) and “eternal” (aïdion) he means that they exist without reference to time. In the claim “Triangles have angles equal to two right angles” the verb is used in the “timeless present” and the claim means no more than any triangle, whenever it may exist has angles equal to two right angles

Increasing the Transaction Costs of Harassment

Wouldn’t it be nice if the rules, agreements, and guidelines designed to prevent online harassment were sufficient to curb improper behavior? As if. Wrongdoers are not always so easily deterred. Sometimes these approaches are about as effective as attacking tanks with toothpicks. As Danielle Citron contends in her critically important work, Hate Crimes in Cyberspace, the design of the Internet facilitates vitriol and abuse, even when it is legally, contractually, and normatively prohibited. Communicating almost effortlessly at distance—sometimes anonymously and typically with minimized body language—can heighten emotional detachment and blunt moral sensitivity. Tragically, when a mediated environment makes it easy to harass others, harassment occurs, all things being equal

Economics of Sports: A Note to this Special Issue

The expansion of economics to other spheres of life, including politics, war, crime, religion, or in particular sports can be seen in line with Hirshleifer (2002) as a breath of fresh air in economics. Although one can always criticize the generalizability of results developed with sports data, sporting events can still be seen as economic (miniature) environments. There is no reason not to acknowledge that athletes, for example, behave according to two key elements in economics, namely incentives and constraints. Focal economic concepts such as prices, opportunity costs or property rights can be nicely investigated in sports markets and are supposed to drive the behaviour of their key actors. An essential strength of sports events is the fact that they take place in a controlled environment generating therefore outcomes that come very close to holding other things equal, providing therefore a real-world laboratory for testing economic theories. Researchers have the chance of working with highly reliable data (low variable errors) and reduced omitted variables biases. The advantages can be visualized using the Tour de France as an example. The ranking of a cyclist at the Tour de France, his performance in the mountains or the time trials are clearly observable and are free of discrepancies compared to well known and often used traditional economic variables such as GDP or CPI. Statistics can be adjusted based on the outside conditions (stadium, weather conditions etc.). A Tour de France takes place in a controlled environment. All riders perform in the same terrain at the same time with the same outside restrictions such as the weather. Further external influences are controlled by the rules (law) of the event, as they are the same for all riders. Thus, many factors can be held constant and therefore the situation is much like a controlled environment. Even though a cycling event allows social and economic interactions and is thus less controlled than a laboratory experiment one of the main advantages is that the participation evokes actual and real processes (e.g., strong monetary incentives) in an environment outside a laboratory setting (Goff and Tollison 1990).doping; economics of sport; illegal activities

Use of Symbols & Classical Allusions in Hamlet

Shakespeare is one of the greatest writers of the world particularly he has no equal in English literature. As a dramatist he has provided the world with the best of material. His plays are read, interpreted and translated in other languages. Samuel Johnson claims that puns are to Shakespeare what “luminous vapours are to the traveller; he follows it at all adventures; it is sure to lead him out of his way, and sure to engulf him in the mire.” Language in literature has always been a very typical way. The writers take help of many things used in figurative language. That is why literary language becomes different from common language. Shakespeare makes use of many rhetorical devices, ranging from the commonplace (metaphor, simile, and so on) to the exotic (polysyndeton—the repetition of conjunctions in a series of coordinate words, phrases or clauses). An important step, though, is simply being aware that these texts are highly rhetorical, and the rhetoric works both to embellish the text and express characterization. Being a great writer, Shakespeare uses the language which is not easily comprehended by a new reader. Beyond any doubt, his language is aphoristic and full of depth and profoundness. The aim of this study is to point out symbols and classical allusions used in Hamlet but at a limited level. The study will be of assistance for the new readers to understand Hamlet. Keywords: Particular language, pun, rhetorical devices, wordplay, metaphor, embellish, aphoristic, allusions, symbols.

PENYIMPANGAN PELAKSANAAN PERLINDUNGAN HUKUM TERHADAP TENAGA KERJA OUTSOURCING DARI KONTEKS UNDANG-UNDANG NOMOR 13 TAHUN 2003

To provide employment protection for a specific time or outsourcing manpower contracts, the provisions of Article 6 of Law No. 13 of 2003 on Manpower stated: "Every worker / laborer is entitled to equal treatment without discrimination from employers". Under Article 6 of Law No. 13 of 2003, then every worker is entitled to workers' equal treatment without distinction of businessmen, just how entrepreneurs in realizing, working period appreciation, money for substituting health benefits and money for substituting annual leave. Problems of labor protection in the implementation are still far from expectations. This is evidenced in employment practices; there are still things that are not in accordance with stipulated in the Employment Act. In which a lot of employers are still to make their own rules for corporate interests regardless of what the rights of its workforce. It can be concluded that the right of labor to labor rights, was not specifically stated in the works agreement. Time for outsourcing work agreement was no later than 2 years. The will to earn a decent wage was far from the expectations of the outsourced workers, while the workers still have not necessarily paid a fair wage. The implementation of legal protection for outsourcing labor is employment conditions that are structural in nature. The volatile strategic environments, globalization, needs (human needs) which always increased as well, the role and function of the means of industrial relations that must be optimized. The things that can be done to overcome these obstacles is the implementation of the labor inspection system which is adopted " " or also called by an. This integrated system is based on the Regulation of Manpower Minister No. ERT. 3/MEN/1984, integration is carried out covering education employment supervision, field operations and management