Performance of image guided navigation in laparoscopic liver surgery – A systematic review

Background: Compared to open surgery, minimally invasive liver resection has improved short term outcomes. It is however technically more challenging. Navigated image guidance systems (IGS) are being developed to overcome these challenges. The aim of this systematic review is to provide an overview of their current capabilities and limitations. Methods: Medline, Embase and Cochrane databases were searched using free text terms and corresponding controlled vocabulary. Titles and abstracts of retrieved articles were screened for inclusion criteria. Due to the heterogeneity of the retrieved data it was not possible to conduct a meta-analysis. Therefore results are presented in tabulated and narrative format. Results: Out of 2015 articles, 17 pre-clinical and 33 clinical papers met inclusion criteria. Data from 24 articles that reported on accuracy indicates that in recent years navigation accuracy has been in the range of 8–15 mm. Due to discrepancies in evaluation methods it is difficult to compare accuracy metrics between different systems. Surgeon feedback suggests that current state of the art IGS may be useful as a supplementary navigation tool, especially in small liver lesions that are difficult to locate. They are however not able to reliably localise all relevant anatomical structures. Only one article investigated IGS impact on clinical outcomes. Conclusions: Further improvements in navigation accuracy are needed to enable reliable visualisation of tumour margins with the precision required for oncological resections. To enhance comparability between different IGS it is crucial to find a consensus on the assessment of navigation accuracy as a minimum reporting standard

Global rigid registration of CT to video in laparoscopic liver surgery

PURPOSE: Image-guidance systems have the potential to aid in laparoscopic interventions by providing sub-surface structure information and tumour localisation. The registration of a preoperative 3D image with the intraoperative laparoscopic video feed is an important component of image guidance, which should be fast, robust and cause minimal disruption to the surgical procedure. Most methods for rigid and non-rigid registration require a good initial alignment. However, in most research systems for abdominal surgery, the user has to manually rotate and translate the models, which is usually difficult to perform quickly and intuitively. METHODS: We propose a fast, global method for the initial rigid alignment between a 3D mesh derived from a preoperative CT of the liver and a surface reconstruction of the intraoperative scene. We formulate the shape matching problem as a quadratic assignment problem which minimises the dissimilarity between feature descriptors while enforcing geometrical consistency between all the feature points. We incorporate a novel constraint based on the liver contours which deals specifically with the challenges introduced by laparoscopic data. RESULTS: We validate our proposed method on synthetic data, on a liver phantom and on retrospective clinical data acquired during a laparoscopic liver resection. We show robustness over reduced partial size and increasing levels of deformation. Our results on the phantom and on the real data show good initial alignment, which can successfully converge to the correct position using fine alignment techniques. Furthermore, since we can pre-process the CT scan before surgery, the proposed method runs faster than current algorithms. CONCLUSION: The proposed shape matching method can provide a fast, global initial registration, which can be further refined by fine alignment methods. This approach will lead to a more usable and intuitive image-guidance system for laparoscopic liver surgery

An objective comparison of methods for augmented reality in laparoscopic liver resection by preoperative-to-intraoperative image fusion

Augmented reality for laparoscopic liver resection is a visualisation mode that allows a surgeon to localise tumours and vessels embedded within the liver by projecting them on top of a laparoscopic image. Preoperative 3D models extracted from CT or MRI data are registered to the intraoperative laparoscopic images during this process. In terms of 3D-2D fusion, most of the algorithms make use of anatomical landmarks to guide registration. These landmarks include the liver's inferior ridge, the falciform ligament, and the occluding contours. They are usually marked by hand in both the laparoscopic image and the 3D model, which is time-consuming and may contain errors if done by a non-experienced user. Therefore, there is a need to automate this process so that augmented reality can be used effectively in the operating room. We present the Preoperative-to-Intraoperative Laparoscopic Fusion Challenge (P2ILF), held during the Medical Imaging and Computer Assisted Interventions (MICCAI 2022) conference, which investigates the possibilities of detecting these landmarks automatically and using them in registration. The challenge was divided into two tasks: 1) A 2D and 3D landmark detection task and 2) a 3D-2D registration task. The teams were provided with training data consisting of 167 laparoscopic images and 9 preoperative 3D models from 9 patients, with the corresponding 2D and 3D landmark annotations. A total of 6 teams from 4 countries participated, whose proposed methods were evaluated on 16 images and two preoperative 3D models from two patients. All the teams proposed deep learning-based methods for the 2D and 3D landmark segmentation tasks and differentiable rendering-based methods for the registration task. Based on the experimental outcomes, we propose three key hypotheses that determine current limitations and future directions for research in this domain.Comment: 24 page

A surgical system for automatic registration, stiffness mapping and dynamic image overlay

In this paper we develop a surgical system using the da Vinci research kit (dVRK) that is capable of autonomously searching for tumors and dynamically displaying the tumor location using augmented reality. Such a system has the potential to quickly reveal the location and shape of tumors and visually overlay that information to reduce the cognitive overload of the surgeon. We believe that our approach is one of the first to incorporate state-of-the-art methods in registration, force sensing and tumor localization into a unified surgical system. First, the preoperative model is registered to the intra-operative scene using a Bingham distribution-based filtering approach. An active level set estimation is then used to find the location and the shape of the tumors. We use a recently developed miniature force sensor to perform the palpation. The estimated stiffness map is then dynamically overlaid onto the registered preoperative model of the organ. We demonstrate the efficacy of our system by performing experiments on phantom prostate models with embedded stiff inclusions.Comment: International Symposium on Medical Robotics (ISMR 2018

Locally rigid, vessel-based registration for laparoscopic liver surgery

Purpose: Laparoscopic liver resection has significant advantages over open surgery due to less patient trauma and faster recovery times, yet is difficult for most lesions due to the restricted field of view and lack of haptic feedback. Image guidance provides a potential solution but is challenging in a soft deforming organ such as the liver. In this paper, we therefore propose a laparoscopic ultrasound (LUS) image guidance system and study the feasibility of a locally rigid registration for laparoscopic liver surgery. Methods: We developed a real-time segmentation method to extract vessel centre points from calibrated, freehand, electromagnetically tracked, 2D LUS images. Using landmark-based initial registration and an optional iterative closest point (ICP) point-to-line registration, a vessel centre-line model extracted from preoperative computed tomography (CT) is registered to the ultrasound data during surgery. Results: Using the locally rigid ICP method, the RMS residual error when registering to a phantom was 0.7 mm, and the mean target registration error (TRE) for two in vivo porcine studies was 3.58 and 2.99 mm, respectively. Using the locally rigid landmark-based registration method gave a mean TRE of 4.23 mm using vessel centre lines derived from CT scans taken with pneumoperitoneum and 6.57 mm without pneumoperitoneum. Conclusion: In this paper we propose a practical image-guided surgery system based on locally rigid registration of a CT-derived model to vascular structures located with LUS. In a physical phantom and during porcine laparoscopic liver resection, we demonstrate accuracy of target location commensurate with surgical requirements. We conclude that locally rigid registration could be sufficient for practically useful image guidance in the near future

Non-Rigid Liver Registration for Laparoscopy using Data-Driven Biomechanical Models

During laparoscopic liver resection, the limited access to the organ, the small field of view and lack of palpation can obstruct a surgeon’s workflow. Automatic navigation systems could use the images from preoperative volumetric organ scans to help the surgeons find their target (tumors) and risk-structures (vessels) more efficiently. This requires the preoperative data to be fused (or registered) with the intraoperative scene in order to display information at the correct intraoperative position. One key challenge in this setting is the automatic estimation of the organ’s current intra-operative deformation, which is required in order to predict the position of internal structures. Parameterizing the many patient-specific unknowns (tissue properties, boundary conditions, interactions with other tissues, direction of gravity) is very difficult. Instead, this work explores how to employ deep neural networks to solve the registration problem in a data-driven manner. To this end, convolutional neural networks are trained on synthetic data to estimate an organ’s intraoperative displacement field and thus its current deformation. To drive this estimation, visible surface cues from the intraoperative camera view must be supplied to the networks. Since reliable surface features are very difficult to find, the networks are adapted to also find correspondences between the pre- and intraoperative liver geometry automatically. This combines the search for correspondences with the biomechanical behavior estimation and allows the networks to tackle the full non-rigid registration problem in one single step. The result is a model which can quickly predict the volume deformation of a liver, given only sparse surface information. The model combines the advantages of a physically accurate biomechanical simulation with the speed and powerful feature extraction capabilities of deep neural networks. To test the method intraoperatively, a registration pipeline is developed which constructs a map of the liver and its surroundings from the laparoscopic video and then uses the neural networks to fuse the preoperative volume data into this map. The deformed organ volume can then be rendered as an overlay directly onto the laparoscopic video stream. The focus of this pipeline is to be applicable to real surgery, where everything should be quick and non-intrusive. To meet these requirements, a SLAM system is used to localize the laparoscopic camera (avoiding setup of an external tracking system), various neural networks are used to quickly interpret the scene and semi-automatic tools let the surgeons guide the system. Beyond the concrete advantages of the data-driven approach for intraoperative registration, this work also demonstrates general benefits of training a registration system preoperatively on synthetic data. The method lets the engineer decide which values need to be known explicitly and which should be estimated implicitly by the networks, which opens the door to many new possibilities.:1 Introduction 1.1 Motivation 1.1.1 Navigated Liver Surgery 1.1.2 Laparoscopic Liver Registration 1.2 Challenges in Laparoscopic Liver Registration 1.2.1 Preoperative Model 1.2.2 Intraoperative Data 1.2.3 Fusion/Registration 1.2.4 Data 1.3 Scope and Goals of this Work 1.3.1 Data-Driven, Biomechanical Model 1.3.2 Data-Driven Non-Rigid Registration 1.3.3 Building a Working Prototype 2 State of the Art 2.1 Rigid Registration 2.2 Non-Rigid Liver Registration 2.3 Neural Networks for Simulation and Registration 3 Theoretical Background 3.1 Liver 3.2 Laparoscopic Liver Resection 3.2.1 Staging Procedure 3.3 Biomechanical Simulation 3.3.1 Physical Balance Principles 3.3.2 Material Models 3.3.3 Numerical Solver: The Finite Element Method (FEM) 3.3.4 The Lagrangian Specification 3.4 Variables and Data in Liver Registration 3.4.1 Observable 3.4.2 Unknowns 4 Generating Simulations of Deforming Organs 4.1 Organ Volume 4.2 Forces and Boundary Conditions 4.2.1 Surface Forces 4.2.2 Zero-Displacement Boundary Conditions 4.2.3 Surrounding Tissues and Ligaments 4.2.4 Gravity 4.2.5 Pressure 4.3 Simulation 4.3.1 Static Simulation 4.3.2 Dynamic Simulation 4.4 Surface Extraction 4.4.1 Partial Surface Extraction 4.4.2 Surface Noise 4.4.3 Partial Surface Displacement 4.5 Voxelization 4.5.1 Voxelizing the Liver Geometry 4.5.2 Voxelizing the Displacement Field 4.5.3 Voxelizing Boundary Conditions 4.6 Pruning Dataset - Removing Unwanted Results 4.7 Data Augmentation 5 Deep Neural Networks for Biomechanical Simulation 5.1 Training Data 5.2 Network Architecture 5.3 Loss Functions and Training 6 Deep Neural Networks for Non-Rigid Registration 6.1 Training Data 6.2 Architecture 6.3 Loss 6.4 Training 6.5 Mesh Deformation 6.6 Example Application 7 Intraoperative Prototype 7.1 Image Acquisition 7.2 Stereo Calibration 7.3 Image Rectification, Disparity- and Depth- estimation 7.4 Liver Segmentation 7.4.1 Synthetic Image Generation 7.4.2 Automatic Segmentation 7.4.3 Manual Segmentation Modifier 7.5 SLAM 7.6 Dense Reconstruction 7.7 Rigid Registration 7.8 Non-Rigid Registration 7.9 Rendering 7.10 Robotic Operating System 8 Evaluation 8.1 Evaluation Datasets 8.1.1 In-Silico 8.1.2 Phantom Torso and Liver 8.1.3 In-Vivo, Human, Breathing Motion 8.1.4 In-Vivo, Human, Laparoscopy 8.2 Metrics 8.2.1 Mean Displacement Error 8.2.2 Target Registration Error (TRE) 8.2.3 Champfer Distance 8.2.4 Volumetric Change 8.3 Evaluation of the Synthetic Training Data 8.4 Data-Driven Biomechanical Model (DDBM) 8.4.1 Amount of Intraoperative Surface 8.4.2 Dynamic Simulation 8.5 Volume to Surface Registration Network (V2S-Net) 8.5.1 Amount of Intraoperative Surface 8.5.2 Dependency on Initial Rigid Alignment 8.5.3 Registration Accuracy in Comparison to Surface Noise 8.5.4 Registration Accuracy in Comparison to Material Stiffness 8.5.5 Champfer-Distance vs. Mean Displacement Error 8.5.6 In-vivo, Human Breathing Motion 8.6 Full Intraoperative Pipeline 8.6.1 Intraoperative Reconstruction: SLAM and Intraoperative Map 8.6.2 Full Pipeline on Laparoscopic Human Data 8.7 Timing 9 Discussion 9.1 Intraoperative Model 9.2 Physical Accuracy 9.3 Limitations in Training Data 9.4 Limitations Caused by Difference in Pre- and Intraoperative Modalities 9.5 Ambiguity 9.6 Intraoperative Prototype 10 Conclusion 11 List of Publications List of Figures Bibliograph

Patient-specific simulation environment for surgical planning and preoperative rehearsal

Surgical simulation is common practice in the fields of surgical education and training. Numerous surgical simulators are available from commercial and academic organisations for the generic modelling of surgical tasks. However, a simulation platform is still yet to be found that fulfils the key requirements expected for patient-specific surgical simulation of soft tissue, with an effective translation into clinical practice. Patient-specific modelling is possible, but to date has been time-consuming, and consequently costly, because data preparation can be technically demanding. This motivated the research developed herein, which addresses the main challenges of biomechanical modelling for patient-specific surgical simulation. A novel implementation of soft tissue deformation and estimation of the patient-specific intraoperative environment is achieved using a position-based dynamics approach. This modelling approach overcomes the limitations derived from traditional physically-based approaches, by providing a simulation for patient-specific models with visual and physical accuracy, stability and real-time interaction. As a geometrically- based method, a calibration of the simulation parameters is performed and the simulation framework is successfully validated through experimental studies. The capabilities of the simulation platform are demonstrated by the integration of different surgical planning applications that are found relevant in the context of kidney cancer surgery. The simulation of pneumoperitoneum facilitates trocar placement planning and intraoperative surgical navigation. The implementation of deformable ultrasound simulation can assist surgeons in improving their scanning technique and definition of an optimal procedural strategy. Furthermore, the simulation framework has the potential to support the development and assessment of hypotheses that cannot be tested in vivo. Specifically, the evaluation of feedback modalities, as a response to user-model interaction, demonstrates improved performance and justifies the need to integrate a feedback framework in the robot-assisted surgical setting.Open Acces