On the design of ultra low voltage CMOS oscillators

Los nodos sensores inalámbricos tienen fuertes requerimientos de bajo consumo de manera de operar con baterías pequeñas o algún mecanismo de cosecha de energía, o ambos. En muchos casos, la cosecha de energía térmica o electroquímica provee tensiones muy bajas del orden de 100 mV o incluso menos. Los sistemas de internet de las cosas incluyen un módulo de reloj que debe estar siempre encendido a efectos de contar el tiempo. Los osciladores a cristal son probadamente útiles como relojes de bajo consumo, y en este contexto la reducción de la tensión es una estrategia conveniente. Por lo tanto, presentamos osciladores a cristal de 32 kHz operando con sólo 60 mV de tensión de alimentación. Dos implementaciones, basadas en el circuito Schmitt trigger para dos cristales diferentes, se diseñan y caracterizan experimentalmente. Estos osciladores a cristal están basados en la aplicación del Schmitt trigger como amplificador. Se provee una guía para el diseño de este bloque para funcionar como el amplificador de un oscilador a cristal. Adicionalmente se propone un modelo dinámico del Schmitt trigger y los resultados del modelo son comparados con resultados de simulación. Los amplificadores son caracterizados experimentalmente, proveyendo una ganancia de 2.48 V/V con 60 mV de tensión de alimentación. Tal como se pretende en la etapa de diseño, para tensiones mayores a 100 mV aparece el fenómeno de histéresis y el Schmitt trigger comienza a operar como un comparador. Los Schmitt trigger para operar como amplificadores de los osciladores a cristal son diseñados en un proceso CMOS de 130 nm y ocupan un área de 45 um x 74 um y 78 um x 83 um, respectivamente. El consumo de potencia de sendos osciladores es 2.26 nW y 15 nW y la estabilidad en temperatura obtenida es de 62 ppm (25-62°C) y 50 ppm (5-62°C), respectivamente. Se midieron la dependencia del consumo de corriente con respecto a la tensión de alimentación, la frequencia de oscilación, el tiempo de arranque y la amplitud de oscilación. La desviación de Allan es 30 ppb en ambos osciladores. Por otra parte, un oscilador LC controlado por voltaje es diseñado en un proceso CMOS de silicio sobre aislante en deplexión total de 28 nm, para aplicaciones de radiofrecuencia. Se estudia la posibilidad de utilizar en este caso el mismo modelo utilizado para el diseño del Schmitt trigger. Dicho modelo es válido en todas las regiones de inversión y está desarrollado para transistores de tipo sustrato y de canal largo. La arquitectura de transistores nMOS entrelazados es la utilizada para este oscilador. Se estudia el límite teórico para la mínima tensión de alimentación. Los transistores son dimensionados de manera óptima para obtener el mínimo consumo de potencia posible, utilizando un enfoque de baja tensión y el desempeño del oscilador se obtuvo mediante simulaciones.Agencia Nacional de Investigación e InnovaciónComisión Académica de Posgrado. Universidad de la RepúblicaComisión Sectorial de Investigación Científica. Universidad de la Repúblic

On the design of ultra low voltage CMOS oscillators.

Wireless sensor nodes require very tight power budgets to operate from either asmall battery, some energy harvesting mechanism or both. In many cases, thermalor electrochemical harvesting devices provide very low voltages of the order of100 mV or even lower. Time-keeping functionality is required in IoT systems andthe time-keeping module must be on at all times. Crystal oscillators have provento be useful for low power time-keeping applications, and in this context supplyvoltage lowering is a convenient strategy. Therefore, 32 kHz crystal oscillatorsoperating with only 60 mV supply are presented. Two implementations based ona Schmitt trigger circuit for two different crystals were designed and experimentallycharacterized.These crystal oscillators are based on the application of a Schmitt trigger asan amplifier. Guidelines for designing this block to be the amplifier of a crystaloscillator are provided. Furthermore, a dynamic model of the Schmitt trigger isproposed and the model results are compared against simulations. The amplifierswere experimentally characterized, providing a gain of 2.48 V/V with a 60 mVpower supply. As it was intended in the design stage, for voltages above 100 mVhysteresis appears and the Schmitt trigger starts operating as a comparator.The Schmitt triggers to operate as amplifiers of the crystal oscillators aredesigned in a 130 nm CMOS process, requiring an area of 45μm x 74μm and78μm x 83μm, respectively. The power consumptions of the crystal oscillators are2.26 nW and 15 nW and the temperature stabilities attained are 62 ppm (25-62°C)and 50 ppm (5-62°C), respectively. The dependence on the supply voltage of thecurrent consumption, fractional frequency, start-up time and oscillation amplitudewere measured. The Allan deviation is 30 ppb for both oscillators.On the other hand, an LC voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is designed in28 nm FD-SOI for RF applications. The possibility of modeling the transistors inthe 28 nm FD-SOI technology by means of the all inversion region long channelbulk transistor model used for the Schmitt trigger circuits, is studied. A cross-coupled nMOS architecture is used to build the VCO. The theoretical limit for theminimum supply voltage that enables oscillation is studied. The transistors wereoptimally sized to aim the minimum power consumption through a low-voltageapproach and the performance of the VCO was obtained through simulations. Los nodos sensores inalámbricos tienen fuertes requerimientos de bajo consumo demanera de operar con baterías pequeñas o algún mecanismo de cosecha de energía, o ambos. En muchos casos, la cosecha de energía térmica o electroquímica provee tensiones muy bajas del orden de 100 mV o incluso menos. Los sistemas de internet de las cosas incluyen un módulo de reloj que debe estar siempre encendido a efectos de contar el tiempo. Los osciladores a cristal son probadamente ́utiles como relojes de bajo consumo, y en este contexto la reducción de la tensión es una estrategia conveniente. Por lo tanto, presentamos osciladores a cristal de 32 kHz operando con sólo 60 mV de tensión de alimentación. Dos implementaciones, basadas en el circuito Schmitt trigger para dos cristales diferentes, se diseñan y caracterizan experimentalmente.Estos osciladores a cristal están basados en la aplicación del Schmitt trigger como amplificador. Se provee una guía para el diseño de este bloque para funcionar como el amplificador de un oscilador a cristal. Adicionalmente se propone un modelo dinámico del Schmitt trigger y los resultados del modelo son comparados con resultados de simulación. Los amplificadores son caracterizados experimentalmente, proveyendo una ganancia de 2.48 V/V con 60 mV de tensión de alimentación. Tal como se pretende en la etapa de diseño, para tensiones mayores a 100 mV aparece el fenómeno de histéresis y el Schmitt trigger comienza a operarcomo un comparador.Los Schmitt trigger para operar como amplificadores de los osciladores a cristal son diseñados en un proceso CMOS de 130 nm y ocupan un área de 45μm x 74μmy 78μm x 83μm, respectivamente. El consumo de potencia de sendos osciladores es2.26 nW y 15 nW y la estabilidad en temperatura obtenida es de 62 ppm (25-62°C)y 50 ppm (5-62°C), respectivamente. Se midieron la dependencia del consumo de corriente con respecto a la tensión de alimentación, la frequencia de oscilación, eltiempo de arranque y la amplitud de oscilación. La desviación de Allan es 30 ppben ambos osciladores.Por otra parte, un oscilador LC controlado por voltaje es diseñado en un proceso CMOS de silicio sobre aislante en deplexión total de 28 nm, para aplicaciones de radiofrecuencia. Se estudia la posibilidad de utilizar en este caso el mismo modelo utilizado para el diseño del Schmitt trigger. Dicho modelo es válido en todas las regiones de inversión y está desarrollado para transistores de tipo sustrato y de canal largo. La arquitectura de transistores nMOS entrelazados es la utilizada para este oscilador. Se estudia el límite teórico para la mínima tensión de alimentación. Los transistores son dimensionados de manera óptima para obtener el mínimo consumo de potencia posible, utilizando un enfoque de baja tensión y el desempeño del oscilador se obtuvo mediante simulaciones

Analysis and design of a subthreshold CMOS Schmitt trigger circuit

Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Centro Tecnológico, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Elétrica, Florianópolis, 2017.Nesta tese, o disparador Schmitt (ou Schmitt trigger) CMOS clássico (ST) operando em inversão fraca é analisado. A transferência de tensão DC completa é determinada, incluindo expressões analíticas para as tensões dos nós internos. A transferência de tensão DC resultante do ST apresenta um comportamento contínuo mesmo na presença da histerese. Nesse caso, a característica da tensão de saída entre os limites da histerese é formada por um segmento metaestável, que pode ser explicado em termos das resistências negativas dos subcircuitos NMOS e PMOS do ST. A tensão mínima para o aparecimento da histerese é determinada fazendo-se a análise de pequenos sinais. A análise de pequenos sinais também é utilizada para a estimativa da largura do laço de histerese. É mostrado que a histerese não aparece para tensões de alimentação menores que 75 mV em 300 K. A análise do ST operando como amplificador também foi feita. A razão ótima dos transistores foi determinada com o objetivo de se maximizar o ganho de tensão. A comparação do disparador Schmitt com o inversor CMOS convencional destaca as vantagens e desvantagens de cada um para aplicações de ultra-baixa tensão. Também é mostrado que o ST é teoricamente capaz de operar (com ganho de tensão absoluto ?1) com uma tensão de alimentação tão baixa quanto 31.5 mV, a qual é menor do que o conhecido limite prévio de 36 mV, para o inversor convencional. Como amplificador, o ST possui ganho de tensão absoluto consideravelmente maior que o inversor convencional na mesma tensão de alimentação. Três circuitos integrados foram projetados e fabricados para estudar o comportamento do ST com tensões de alimentação entre 50 mV e 1000 mV.Abstract : In this thesis, the classical CMOS Schmitt trigger (ST) operating in weak inversion is analyzed. The complete DC voltage transfer characteristic is determined, including analytical expressions for the internal node voltage. The resulting voltage transfer characteristic of the ST presents a continuous output behavior even when hysteresis is present. In this case, the output voltage characteristic between the hysteresis limits is formed by a metastable segment, which can be explained in terms of the negative resistance of the NMOS and PMOS subcircuits of the ST. The minimum supply voltage at which hysteresis appears is determined carrying out small-signal analysis, which is also used to estimate the hysteresis width. It is shown that hysteresis does not appear for supply voltages lower than 75 mV at 300 K. The analysis of the ST operating as a voltage amplifier was also carried out. Optimum transistor ratios were determined aiming at voltage gain maximization. The comparison of the ST with the standard CMOS inverter highlights the relative benefits and drawbacks of each one in ULV applications. It is also shown that the ST is theoretically capable of operating (voltage gain ?1) at a supply voltage as low as 31.5 mV, which is lower than the well-known limit of 36 mV, for the standard CMOS inverter. As an amplifier, the ST shows considerable higher absolute voltage gains than those showed by the conventional inverter at the same supply voltages. Three test chips were designed and fabricated to study the operation of the ST at supply voltages between 50 mV and 1000 mV

A sub-threshold differential cmos schmitt trigger with adjustable hysteresis based on body bias technique

This paper presents a sub-threshold differential CMOS Schmitt trigger with tunable hysteresis, which can be used to enhance the noise immunity of low-power electronic systems. By exploiting the body bias technique to the positive feedback transistors, the hysteresis of the proposed Schmitt trigger is generated, and it can be adjusted by the applied bias voltage to the bulk terminal of the utilized PMOS transistors. The principle of operation and the main formulas of the proposed circuit are discussed. The circuit is designed in a 0.18-μm standard CMOS process with a 0.6 V power supply. Post-layout simulation results show that the hysteresis width of the Schmitt trigger can be adjusted from 45.5 mV to 162 mV where the ratio of the hysteresis width variation to supply voltage is 19.4%. This circuit consumes 10.52 × 7.91 μm2 of silicon area, and its power consumption is only 1.38 μW, which makes it a suitable candidate for low-power applications such as portable electronic, biomedical, and bio-implantable systems

Design of a Programmable Passive SoC for Biomedical Applications Using RFID ISO 15693/NFC5 Interface

Low power, low cost inductively powered passive biotelemetry system involving fully customized RFID/NFC interface base SoC has gained popularity in the last decades. However, most of the SoCs developed are application specific and lacks either on-chip computational or sensor readout capability. In this paper, we present design details of a programmable passive SoC in compliance with ISO 15693/NFC5 standard for biomedical applications. The integrated system consists of a 32-bit microcontroller, a sensor readout circuit, a 12-bit SAR type ADC, 16 kB RAM, 16 kB ROM and other digital peripherals. The design is implemented in a 0.18 μ m CMOS technology and used a die area of 1.52 mm × 3.24 mm. The simulated maximum power consumption of the analog block is 592 μ W. The number of external components required by the SoC is limited to an external memory device, sensors, antenna and some passive components. The external memory device contains the application specific firmware. Based on the application, the firmware can be modified accordingly. The SoC design is suitable for medical implants to measure physiological parameters like temperature, pressure or ECG. As an application example, the authors have proposed a bioimplant to measure arterial blood pressure for patients suffering from Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)

Digital-based analog processing in nanoscale CMOS ICs for IoT applications

The Internet-of-Things (IoT) concept has been opening up a variety of applications, such as urban and environmental monitoring, smart health, surveillance, and home automation. Most of these IoT applications require more and more power/area efficient Complemen tary Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor (CMOS) systems and faster prototypes (lower time-to market), demanding special modifications in the current IoT design system bottleneck: the analog/RF interfaces. Specially after the 2000s, it is evident that there have been significant improvements in CMOS digital circuits when compared to analog building blocks. Digital circuits have been taking advantage of CMOS technology scaling in terms of speed, power consump tion, and cost, while the techniques running behind the analog signal processing are still lagging. To decrease this historical gap, there has been an increasing trend in finding alternative IC design strategies to implement typical analog functions exploiting Digital in-Concept Design Methodologies (DCDM). This idea of re-thinking analog functions in digital terms has shown that Analog ICs blocks can also avail of the feature-size shrinking and energy efficiency of new technologies. This thesis deals with the development of DCDM, demonstrating its compatibility for Ultra-Low-Voltage (ULV) and Power (ULP) IoT applications. This work proves this state ment through the proposing of new digital-based analog blocks, such as an Operational Transconductance Amplifiers (OTAs) and an ac-coupled Bio-signal Amplifier (BioAmp). As an initial contribution, for the first time, a silicon demonstration of an embryonic Digital-Based OTA (DB-OTA) published in 2013 is exhibited. The fabricated DB-OTA test chip occupies a compact area of 1,426 µm2 , operating at supply voltages (VDD) down to 300 mV, consuming only 590 pW while driving a capacitive load of 80pF. With a Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) lower than 5% for a 100mV input signal swing, its measured small-signal figure of merit (FOMS) and large-signal figure of merit (FOML) are 2,101 V −1 and 1,070, respectively. To the best of this thesis author’s knowledge, this measured power is the lowest reported to date in OTA literature, and its figures of merit are the best in sub-500mV OTAs reported to date. As the second step, mainly due to the robustness limitation of previous DB-OTA, a novel calibration-free digital-based topology is proposed, named here as Digital OTA (DIG OTA). A 180-nm DIGOTA test chip is also developed exhibiting an area below the 1000 µm2 wall, 2.4nW power under 150pF load, and a minimum VDD of 0.25 V. The proposed DIGOTA is more digital-like compared with DB-OTA since no pseudo-resistor is needed. As the last contribution, the previously proposed DIGOTA is then used as a building block to demonstrate the operation principle of power-efficient ULV and ultra-low area (ULA) fully-differential, digital-based Operational Transconductance Amplifier (OTA), suitable for microscale biosensing applications (BioDIGOTA) such as extreme low area Body Dust. Measured results in 180nm CMOS confirm that the proposed BioDIGOTA can work with a supply voltage down to 400 mV, consuming only 95 nW. The BioDIGOTA layout occupies only 0.022 mm2 of total silicon area, lowering the area by 3.22X times compared to the current state of the art while keeping reasonable system performance, such as 7.6 Noise Efficiency Factor (NEF) with 1.25 µVRMS input-referred noise over a 10 Hz bandwidth, 1.8% of THD, 62 dB of the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) and 55 dB of power supply rejection ratio (PSRR). After reviewing the current DCDM trend and all proposed silicon demonstrations, the thesis concludes that, despite the current analog design strategies involved during the analog block development

Digital-Based Analog Processing in Nanoscale CMOS ICs for IoT Applications

L'abstract è presente nell'allegato / the abstract is in the attachmen

A Low Power Integrated Circuit for Implantable Biosensor Incorporating an On-Chip FSK Modulator

Medical care has been significantly improved in recent years due to tremendous technological advancement in the field of CMOS technology. Among those improvements, integrated circuit design and sensing techniques have brought to the doctors more flexibility and accuracy of examinations of their patients. For example, a diabetic patient needs to visit a hospital on a regular basis for the examination and proper treatment. However, with the tremendous advancement in electronic technology, a patient can soon monitor his or her own blood glucose level at home or at office with an implantable sensor which can also trigger insulin pump attached to the body. The insulin delivery system can be precisely controlled by the electronics embedded in the implantable device. In this thesis, a low power integrated circuit for the implantable biosensor incorporating an on-chip FSK modulator is presented. This design has been fabricated using AMI 0.5-μm CMOS process available through MOSIS. The simulation and test results are also presented to verify its operation