Residual Income in Four Dimensions: Goal-Congruity, Controllability, Understandability and Practicability

The article discusses ten versions of residual income known in the literature from the point of view of four criteria that are of special importance if the measure is to be the basis of managerial bonuses: goal-congruity, controllability, understandability and practicability. There is – on average – a considerable trade-off between goal-congruity and the three remaining criteria. However, there are residual income versions – like net economic income (NEI) and the variant of residual income that is based exclusively on unadjusted book values (RIBV) – which demonstrate outstandingly favorable levels of goal-congruity, controllability, understandability and practicability. Although NEI exhibits the highest level of goal-congruity among the ten versions of residual income studied in the article and acceptable levels of three remaining features, it is deficient of intensive scientific examination which is necessary to make such a new tool the subject of justified recommendation. On the other hand, RIBV is the most controllable and seems to be the most understandable and the most practicable among the ten versions analyzed in the paper. However, its goal-congruity is relatively low. Yet, it can be improved without making the computational formula more complex simply by including some mechanisms making managers less myopic in bonus plan architecture.residual income (RI), net economic income (NEI), residual income that is based exclusively on unadjusted book values (RIBV), goal-congruity

Survival processing versus self-reference : a memory advantage following descriptive self-referential encoding

Previous research has shown that rating words for their relevance to a survival scenario leads to better retention of the words than rating them for self-reference. Past studies have, however, relied exclusively on an autobiographical self-reference task in which participants rate how easily a common noun brings to mind a personal experience. We report five experiments comparing survival processing to a descriptive self-reference task in which participants rated how well trait words described them. Rating trait adjectives for survival value led to higher levels of recall and recognition than rating them for their relevance to a moving home scenario. Rating the adjectives for self-reference, however, led to higher levels of recall (Experiments 1 and 3) and recollection (Experiment 2) than survival rating. Experiment 4 replaced trait adjectives with trait nouns and found that self-reference led to greater recognition accuracy than survival processing. Experiment 5 used trait nouns followed by tests of free recall and found a memory advantage following self-reference that was not influenced by the imageability of the stimuli. The findings are discussed in terms of theories of the survival processing and self-reference effects and the relationship between them

Postvisit Destination Loyalty Judgments: Developing and Testing a Comprehensive Congruity Model

Previous research has established the effect of self-congruity on both pre- and postvisit constructs, but its predictive power has appeared minimal. Departing from both classical and contemporary approaches to human needs and values, this study proposes a comprehensive model explaining more variance in postvisit destination loyalty judgments. The model comprises six explanatory variables, in addition to self-congruity: functional, hedonic, leisure, economic, safety, and m oral congruity. Based on a large-scale web survey among tourists (N = 973), the results provide good support for the proposed model (64% explained variance). Each of the seven congruity components exerts a significant influence on postvisit loyalty, but their relative contributions differ considerably. Other than self-congruity, functional, hedonic, leisure, and safety congruity exert the greatest influence on postvisit loyalty judgments; in contrast, economic and moral congruity have lesser influences. The authors discuss the results in light of their theoretical and practical implications for destination marketing. (author's abstract

The Role of Self- and Functional Congruity on Online Retail Patronage Behavior

Three research objectives were determined for this study. The first objective was to explore online store image using both qualitative and quantitative methods to compare traditional store image dimensions and online store image dimensions. The second objective was to explore the relationships among self-congruity, functional congruity, online retail patronage behavior, and the possible moderators between to two types of congruity and online retail patronage behavior. The last objective was to compare the observed relationships based on the second objective between two types of online retailers: General merchandise online retailers vs. Specialty online retailers. To collect the data, in-depth interviews as well as an extensive online survey was performed. The data were analyzed through a confirmatory factor analysis and a path analysis. Findings revealed that online store image was defined as six underlying dimensions: Purchase Process and Reliability, Depth and Width of Site Attraction, Cost and Time of Delivery, Price Competitiveness and Communication, Product and Information Availability, and Post-purchase Services. The significant relationships between two types of congruity and online retail patronage behavior were found. First, Self-congruity positively influenced online retail patronage behavior to a slight degree. Conversely, Functional congruity positively influenced online retail patronage behavior to a stronger degree. Consumers’ prior online shopping experience was identified as a moderator, such that consumers with higher prior experience used both functional and self related attributes to decide their online retail patronage behavior. Consumers with lower prior experience used mainly functional attributes to decide the online retail patronage behavior. Managerial and academic implications and future research directions based on the findings were offered

Undesired self-image congruence in a low-involvement product context

The paper seeks to investigate the incremental value of a construct termed “undesired self-image congruence”, and capture consumers’ perceived closeness to negatively valenced brand-related attributes over and above established self-image congruence factors known to affect consumption-related attitudes and intentions. A questionnaire-based study was used to assess consumers’ attitudes and intentions to consume a low-involvement product (Marlboro cigarettes; n = 211). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were employed to determine the incremental predictive value of the newly introduced undesired congruity component over and above established self-image congruence facets. Undesired congruity proved its substantial and incremental value in predicting consumption-related attitudes, but did not directly influence purchasing intentions. Research limitations/implications - Avoidance motives related to undesired brand images appear to influence purchase decisions at early stages of the decision-making process, namely in attitude formation and evaluative responding. Controlled experimental approaches with a broader set of products should be used to corroborate this potential research implication. Because negative stereotypical images appear to feed into purchase-related decision processes at early stages, due caution should be exerted in primary data collection and brand positioning. Primary data collection should capture both positive and negative brand-related meanings attributed by consumers. Because the results show that undesired congruity has an incremental explanatory effect, positive versus negative symbolic meanings are clearly not just "two sides of the same coin". Consequently, brand positioning should define its strategy by simultaneously maximizing both the closeness to desired symbolic meanings and the distance to undesired symbolic associations. The value of the paper lies in testing the operation of undesired congruity and in quantifying its incremental contribution in the symbolic consumption context. (author's abstract

The brand-personality of three categories of drinks in Australia

This study focuses on the 42 traits of brand personality (Aaker 1997) of nine drink brands spanning across three drink segments - fizzy drink, mineral water and energy drink, and measure the congruity of the brands' personalities (five dimension) to the consumer (drinker) of those brands. Based on the results, excitement is the point-of-parity for fizzy drink and energy drink while sincerity is the point-of-parity for mineral water. Other four brand personalities can become the point-of-difference for each brand in each drink category. Using these results, a better understanding of brand personalities of each brand in customer minds can be used to improve marketing communication more effectively and give the right message to the right target market. Future research should be done on such fields and sectors as restaurants, food, other fast moving consumer goods and the like and include a wider sample audience, spanning across different geographical borders. Implication for conceptual, methodological and managerial also discussed in this study

Impact of Performance and Expressiveness Value of Store Service Quality on the Mediating Role of Satisfaction with Store

This study explores the extent to which store service attributes having appeal for consumer self-image impacts store satisfaction and patronage intentions and discovers that this "expressiveness" value has significant associations with both. By using the adapted RSQS for measuring service quality in the Indian appare! retail context, this paper finds that service expressiveness value is distinct from the performance value obtained from service delivery. This paper provides empirical evidence that the mediation effect of satisfaction varies depending on consumer perceived value from service and that it is neither as universal nor as strong as retailers and researchers lend to believe.

Antecedents and Consequences of Self-Congruity: Replication and Extension

Purpose The purpose of this study is to propose and empirically test a framework encompassing self-congruity with its antecedents and consequences. This study also aims to test the mediating role of perceived value and its dimensions. Design/methodology/approach A questionnaire-based survey was conducted using a purposive sampling technique. In total, 310 useable responses were collected and data were analyzed using partial least square structural equation modeling. Findings A majority of hypotheses were supported. Avoidance of similarity and status consumption positively influenced self-congruity, replicating an earlier study. Self-congruity positively influenced overall perceived value and its dimensions, as well as revisit intention. Overall perceived value and its dimensions positively influenced revisit intention. Finally, overall perceived value and its dimensions were found to have a mediating effect on the relationship between self-congruity and revisit intention. Originality/value This study provides empirical evidence for the antecedents and consequences of self-congruity with a service and expands understanding of the mediating role of overall perceived value and its dimensions in predicting intention

Brand personality complementarity:its effects on evaluations of extremely incongruent extensions

Prior research on brand extension has provided little evidence on enhancing the evaluation of extremely incongruent extension. Adopting the theoretical framework of schema congruity theory, the author posits that evaluations can be improved if brand personality impressions of both parent brand and extension are complementary. The author coins this as the brand personality complementarity (BPC) principle. Prior to examining BPC effect, cultural-specific brand personality scale was developed to identify universal and indigenous brand personality dimensions. The reason is BPC requires a reliable and valid brand personality scale in order to detect its effect. Following successful identification of the cultural-specific brand personality scale, a total of three experimental studies were done to investigate BPC effect. Specifically, one experimental study identified complementary levels amongst brand personality dimensions, whereas two experimental studies investigated the moderating effect of BPC. Findings from the scale development study reveal that Malaysian brand personality (MBP) scale is a second higher-order factor reflected by first higher-order factors of sophistication, youth, competence, and sincerity. Most importantly, findings from the experimental studies revealed; 1) different BPC levels amongst all possible pairs of MBP dimensions, 2) significant interaction effect of brand extension congruity x BPC, and 3) significant mediation effect of complementarity resolution. Specific findings indicated that when iv text-based stimuli were used to form brand personality impression, even low BPC level improves the evaluations of extremely incongruent extension. However, when visualbased stimuli were used, low BPC level worsen the extension evaluation compared those of the control condition (i.e. without brand personality impression). Implications for both academician and practitioner are discussed

Tennessee county agricultural extension leader performance and its relationship to role expectations

The problem explored was how the ideal role relates to the actual role of the extension leader as perceived by his staff and further how does performance of the extension leader relate to high congruity of ideal and actual role? The following questions were explored and analyzed: (1) is there a significant relationship between high con-gruity of ideal and actual role (as perceived by staff members) and high performance rating of an extension leader; (2) is there agreement among staff members as to role items and segments that should con-stitute the job responsibilities of an extension leader; (3) is there agree-ment among staff members as to the manner in which role items and segments are actually being carried out; and (4) is there a relationship between congruity of ideal and actual role and perceived leader behavior (as measured by the Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire) of the extension leader? Job descriptions of the 95 Tennessee county extension leaders were analyzed and categorized into 39 role item statements. These items were further classified under five role segments. A Likert-type question-naire was developed using these 39 role items which was used to collect data to determine ideal and actual role of the extension leader as perceived by his professional staff. The LBDQ was used as a second measure of perception of actual role. A summary of findings included the following. Congruity of ideal and actual role as perceived by an extension leader\u27s staff was signifi-cantly correlated with his performance. Total score related to actual role, however, proved to be more highly related to performance than congruity scores. The staff of extension leaders considered that 31 of the 39 role items should ideally be a part of the job responsibility of the extension leader. Two of the remaining eight were related to coordinating training and use of volunteer leaders; three to specialist use in planning, implementing and evaluating the county program; two to training per-sonnel; and one to coordinating security of sponsorship for all program areas. The staff of extension leaders considered that 29 of the 39 role items were actually being performed in a satisfactory manner. Eight of the remaining ten were classified low consensus in the ideal dimen-sion and presumably were being performed at about the level staff mem-bers felt these should be. Two role items, assist staff in implementing their assigned area of work and counsel other staff members in regard to their assigned responsibilities, moved from high consensus in the ideal dimension to low consensus in the actual dimension. Thus these two items were perceived by staff of the extension leader as not being performed at a satisfactory level. Extension leaders ranking above the mean on both initiating struc-ture and consideration scored significantly higher on 38 of the 39 role items than did leaders ranking below the mean in both these dimen-sions. Congruity measures used in the study were highly correlated with initiating structure and consideration scores