The influence of culture and ethical ideology on ethical decision making process of Malaysian managers

The ethical decision making (EDM) process of individuals has proven to be very challenging due to the multitude of complex and varied factors that contribute to this behaviour. Nevertheless, many theoretical frameworks have been proposed to describe such behaviour. Despite the increasing number of EDM models and practices, reports of unethical incidents and illegal behaviour, especially in organizations, continue to appear. This problem is in part related to the failure of EDM models that do not adequately explain the antecedent factors of ethical behaviour by individuals in organizations. As a result, there is a gap between theory and practice. Hence, the main objective of this study is to address these shortcomings by exploring and empirically examining the antecedents in the EDM process and by developing a behavioural model that encompasses a fully functional model of individual ethical behaviour.Furthermore, most of the major frameworks have been formulated from a Western perspective. The current research was conducted in the Malaysian context, using a model that accounts for cultural differences. The most generally accepted concept is that culture is a key determinant of an individual's ethical ideology, which affects an individual’s inclination to behave ethically. In other words, culture acts as a guideline in determining whether certain practices are appropriate and acceptable. However, individuals in organizations also have an obligation to comply the culture in their work setting. Therefore, the culture of ethical practices in an organization is expected to play an important role in the process of EDM. In addition, literature has established the moderating effect of gender, age and level of education in such behaviour. Therefore, the current research also further investigated the relationship among the components of the EDM process, which has thus far not been given proper attention.A two-phase sequential mixed-method approach, consisting of qualitative and quantitative approaches, was carried out in this research. In the qualitative part, a field study of semi-structured interviews was conducted with the objective of testing the applicability of the initial model besides exploring the dimensionality of the construct. The data was analyzed using content analysis through Nvivo software. Based on the analysis, the dimensionality of the constructs was identified and two more relevant antecedent factors were detected, namely parental values and religiosity. Thus, these two factors were added to the comprehensive research model. A survey was conducted among managers from Malaysia large organizations to collect quantitative data. The data was analyzed using a Partial Least Square (PLS) based Structural Equations Modelling (SEM) tool. In addition, multi-group analysis of PLS was also employed.The major findings of this research have confirmed the influence of ethical ideology as the major determinant of the EDM process. Furthermore, results have demonstrated the role of culture as the antecedent of an individual’s ethical ideology. Interestingly, the influence of parental values and religiosity, which was derived from the field study, was also confirmed. Findings also verified the moderating effect of the organizational ethical culture in enhancing a moral awareness of an individual’s EDM process. With regards to the relationship among the components of the EDM process, findings revealed sequential and interrelationship links between the components. On the other hand, the moderating effect of gender, age and level of education in the EDM process was not detected. Overall results confirm the multidimensional construct and the complexity of such a process. This research provides a significant contribution to the existing knowledge in the EDM area. Most importantly, an understanding of the antecedents and the processes of EDM provides guidelines for organizations in developing better ethical programs and policies in order to promote and encourage ethical behaviour. Perhaps a major contribution of this research is the implication for managers to enhance the process of EDM in organizations

The Ethics of Codes of Ethics

Medical codes of ethics have long been understood as social contracts and have evolved in the way they are developed in some countries to reflect this, through regular consultation processes and periodic updates. If the medical code of ethics is breached, then attention often turns to those who breach the code rather than to a search for some inadequacy of the code that failed to change behaviour. By contrast, business codes of ethics are developed for a number of reasons, including legal compliance, and are not always developed in such a way that they can adequately reflect the extant social contract. When the social contract is breached by individuals of a corporation, attention often turns to the code in an attempt to identify the inadequacies that allowed the breach. This thesis examines the philosophical, empirical and historical research to discover how codes of ethics are perceived in the research, what the empirical investigation of codes of ethics tells us, and how codes of ethics have evolved. It reveals that theories to support the notion that codes of ethics for business are social contracts have been developed only relatively recently. It also reveals that while there is broad acceptance of this notion, there is little evidence to indicate that some of the usual processes used to develop codes of ethics are geared towards producing a social contract. This thesis argues that the development process for a code is fundamental to its capacity to reflect the social contract, but that this aspect of codes is poorly studied. A framework which outlines the approaches used for developing a code of ethics is offered in this thesis to facilitate understanding and inform discussion of the issue. Studies of codes of ethics for business tell us some empirical information, but the quality of many primary studies is poor and meta-analyses are few. This fact provides an opportunity to identify and discuss gaps and assumptions in the research to help provide direction for future research efforts. The history and evolution of medical codes of ethics in the UK are used as a case study to demonstrate how business and researchers could re-frame thinking about business codes of ethics and their development. The Ethics of Codes of Ethics has two predominant objectives. Firstly, it provides a critique of existing approaches to both the development and implementation of codes of ethics. Secondly, it provides constructive suggestions for changes to the way business codes of ethics are conceived, developed and researched. This dual (critical and constructive) approach is used to highlight how codes of ethics actually need to be developed in such a way that they better reflect the social contract between a business and the society in which it operates. It is only by reflecting the social contract between business and the society in which it operates that codes of ethics become inherently ethical documents

Environmental sustainability leadership in South Africa: an empirical perspective

Striking the balance between managing a successful organisation and paying attention to environmental sustainability requires excellent leadership. There are several benefits associated with being an environmentally sustainable organisation such as improved image (reputation and brand), increased customer loyalty, improved bottom line, attracting skilled experienced staff and improving the relationships with local communities. The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the change leadership qualities needed to drive environmental sustainability in the South African landscape to reduce global warming reduction. The qualitative paradigm was utilised to investigate the change leadership qualities needed to affect create environmental sustainability, with focus on global warming reduction actions in the workplace. A literature review was conducted on environmental sustainability, change leadership, and leadership qualities necessary to effect change. A survey was conducted among 13 participants using an interview schedule in the Gauteng, Western and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa in both private and public organisations in various business sectors. Data was collected in 2013 over a four–month period by conducting face-to-face, telephonic and email interviews. The returned questionnaires were subjected to constant comparative, content and grounded theory analysis. Biographical profiles of the respondents and participating organisations were presented as case studies. Trustworthiness of the data was ascertained using data triangulation. Data was analysed in terms of the issues of environmental sustainability and change leadership. In-depth analyses were also conducted by means of provincial, business and employment sector comparisons. It was found that environmental sustainability was being addressed by the selected organisations, specifically relating to GHG emissions, energy and water saving actions. Change leaders should implement specific environmental sustainability strategies to assist in the reduction of global warming, create awareness, focus on employee involvement, report on their sustainability results and put and incentives in place to encourage environmental sustainability. In order to effect such changes, change leaders need to set targets to measure their sustainability progress. Green campaigns should be conducted internally to educate employees on the effects of global warming, and externally to inform the public about their commitment to environmental sustainability and to advise the public on courses of actions to assist in the quest to reduce global warming. It would be advisable for organisations to appoint a specific environmental sustainability team to drive these efforts. It was found that in order to bring about such changes, certain qualities were needed by change leaders to enable them to act as a change agents. Associated change leadership styles were also addressed. Change leaders should be knowledgeable in order to effectively communicate the importance of environmental sustainability. They should adopt a blend of leadership styles to drive environmental sustainability depending on the extent of change actions planned. Organisations should identify, appoint and mentor female leaders as they have the nurturing qualities that could successfully drive environmental sustainability actions. Change leaders should also preferably be personally involved in environmental sustainability as their personal values together with their job role at top leadership level could contribute towards successful implementation of environmental sustainability actions in the workplace. The study has provided general guidelines on the environmental sustainability issues necessary to address global warming reduction as well as guidelines on the change leaders qualities necessary to drive environmental sustainability actions in the workplace