Land use in rural New Zealand: spatial land use, land-use change, and model validation

Abstract Land is an important social and economic resource. Knowing the spatial distribution of land use and the expected location of future land-use change is important to inform decision makers. This paper documents and validates the baseline land-use maps and the algorithm for spatial land-use change incorporated in the Land Use in Rural New Zealand model (LURNZ). At the time of writing, LURNZ is the only national-level land-use model of New Zealand. While developed for New Zealand, the model provides an intuitive algorithm that would be straightforward to apply to different locations and at different spatial resolutions. LURNZ is based on a heuristic model of dynamic land-use optimisation with conversion costs. It allocates land-use changes to each pixel using a combination of pixel probabilities in a deterministic algorithm and calibration to national-level changes. We simulate out of sample and compare to observed data. As a result of the model construction, we underestimate the “churn” in land use. We demonstrate that the algorithm assigns changes in land use to pixels that are similar in quality to the pixels where land-use changes are observed to occur. We also show that there is a strong positive relationship between observed territorial-authority-level dairy changes and simulated changes in dairy area

Productivist and post-productivist conceptualizations of agriculture from a New Zealand perspective

This paper considers productivist/post-productivist conceptualisations of agriculture in the light of changing New Zealand attitudes toward protection of indigenous vegetation and wildlife. It will show how the attitude of farmers toward native habitat and wildlife mirror changes in the wider New Zealand society. It will suggest that post-productivist elements vary from one part of the world to another, and thereby reflect not so much change within agriculture, or even change within rural society, but changing relationships between the wider society (of which agriculture is always a part), and the environment

An assessment of the value of pastoral development in Northland

This paper presents the results of an economic study of farm development in Northland. In this study, records were collected of 32 dairy farm case histories which had increased butterfat production by 105% in an average of 6 years, and 18 sheep farm case histories for which wool production increased 116% over a 7-year period. Also included are data supplied by the Lands and Survey Department on the economic outcome of two land development blocks. In this paper, attention is focused on the cash costs and benefits of development and their valuation by economic methods. Nevertheless, the deficiencies of this approach are recognized, because cash costs and benefits are only one dimension of the outcome of development and the method used for valuing this outcome makes assumptions about the values of the farmer and society.This research was generously funded by the Commercial Rank of Australia to mark their 100th Anniversary

Effect of grazing on ship rat density in forest fragments of lowland Waikato, New Zealand

Ship rat (Rattus rattus) density was assessed by snap-trapping during summer and autumn in eight indigenous forest fragments (mean 5 ha) in rural landscapes of Waikato, a lowland pastoral farming district of the North Island, New Zealand. Four of the eight were fenced and four grazed. In each set of four, half were connected with hedgerows, gullies or some other vegetative corridor to nearby forest and half were completely isolated. Summer rat density based on the number trapped in the first six nights was higher in fenced (mean 6.5 rats ha–1) than in grazed fragments (mean 0.5 rats ha–1; P = 0.02). Rats were eradicated (no rats caught and no rat footprints recorded for three consecutive nights) from all eight fragments in January–April 2008, but reinvaded within a month; time to eradication averaged 47 nights in fenced and 19 nights in grazed fragments. A second six-night trapping operation in autumn, 1–3 months after eradication, found no effect of fencing (P = 0.73). Connectedness to an adjacent source of immigrants did not influence rat density within a fragment in either season (summer P = 0.25, autumn P = 0.67). An uncalibrated, rapid (one-night) index of ship rat density, using baited tracking tunnels set in a 50 × 50 m grid, showed a promising relationship with the number of rats killed per hectare over the first six nights, up to tracking index values of c. 30% (corresponding to c. 3–5 rats ha–1). The index will enable managers to determine if rat abundance is low enough to achieve conservation benefits. Our results confirm a dilemma for conservation in forest fragments. Fencing protects vegetation, litter and associated ecological processes, but also increases number of ship rats, which destroy seeds, invertebrates and nesting birds. Maximising the biodiversity values of forest fragments therefore requires both fencing and control of ship rats

Allocation of New Zealand Units within Agriculture in the New Zealand Emissions Trading System

When agricultural emissions are included in the New Zealand Emission Trading System (ETS) the economics of farming will be significantly altered. Under the legislation current in October 2009, in the early years of the system the agricultural sector as a whole would have received NZ units equivalent to 90% of 2005 emissions to ease the transition. Amendments to the Bill passed in November have delayed the start date from 2013 to 2015 and extended the protection even further. This paper addresses one of the key issues for making an agricultural emissions trading system a success: how to use the allocation of NZ units to achieve equitable and acceptable cost sharing and a smoother transition. We first discuss the potential motivations for free allocation and the two extreme potential allocation options that could be associated with the two key motivations. The option finally chosen is likely to be somewhere between these two extremes. Empirical studies can inform assessment of options. Previous empirical studies have addressed a variety of questions, including what the economic impact of the system is and on whom, how much leakage is there likely to be, and what might be the adjustment costs. We discuss each of these, comparing different existing studies and addressing some current gaps in our understanding and knowledge with new empirical work on farm level impacts and on likely responses to the ETS. We conclude by laying out some key options for allocation design and drawing links between these and the empirical material.New Zealand, emission trading, agriculture, free allocation, trade exposure

A review of Leptospermum scoparium (Myrtaceae) in New Zealand

Information about Leptospermum scoparium (Myrtaceae), the most widespread and important New Zealand indigenous shrub species, is reviewed. L. scoparium is a variable species, requiring more study of the genetically based differences between New Zealand populations and the affinity of these populations to Australian populations and other closely allied Australian species. Improved understanding of the species’ variation will assist both its conservation roles and economic uses, and the need to sustain genetically distinct varieties is emphasised. Ecologically, the species has a dominant role in infertile and poorly drained environments, and a wider occurrence as a seral shrub species in successions to forest where it may be regarded as a woody weed of pasture or a useful species for erosion control, carbon sesquestration, and vegetation restoration. The main economic products derived from the species are ornamental shrubs, essential oils, and honey. The species’ development as an ornamental plant and further definition of the pharmacologically active components are recommended as priority areas for research

Regional economic activity report 2014

Provides consistent information for each of New Zealand’s 16 regions. This allows us to compare the regions’ economic performance, distinguish their attributes and specialisations, and understand the different roles they play in the New Zealand economy. Summary The 2014 regional economic activity report report shows that nearly all of New Zealand\u27s 16 regions have made good economic progress over the last 12 months, reflecting New Zealand’s recovery after the global financial crisis. Each region provides a different contribution to the New Zealand economy and, while there is diversity, all regions have the potential to attract further investment, improve their living standards and generate high-value economic growth. Most regions experienced job growth over the last year. This is despite the 2013 drought which particularly affected primary production in the North Island. Canterbury has been the fastest growing region over the last two years, driven by the Christchurch rebuild and supported by its primary sector. Actions to enhance regional economic activity and outcomes need to be underpinned by a sound knowledge of each region’s historical trends and its strengths and weaknesses.This report provides comprehensive and comparative information about economic outcomes and the drivers of those outcomes across all regions. In addition, the government, in partnership with local decision-makers, is this year undertaking in-depth economic growth studies of regions such as East Coast, Northland, Bay of Plenty, and Manawatū-Wanganui. Those studies will help the regions prioritise opportunities for growth and identify how to overcome any barriers to that growth. This report highlights several key findings. First, each region has industry specialisations which have developed historically due to natural resource and infrastructure endowments, geographic location and skills. Those specialisations are the chief contributors to the different economic outcomes seen across the regions. Some sectors, such as dairy farming and milk processing, are benefiting from high commodity prices and market growth while others, such as horticulture, have lower returns. Secondly, the report identifies a regional dimension to the economic disparity between Māori and non-Māori. Some of the regions with poorer outcomes are also regions that have a higher proportion of Māori in their populations. The Crown and Māori have entered into an economic growth partnership to improve economic outcomes for Māori and to build economic growth from Māori assets and Māori Inc. This partnership will be delivered regionally and will include Business Growth Agenda actions such as the Māori and Pasifika Trades Training programme. Thirdly, the report shows there is significant diversity in demographic trends across regions, partly in response to relative economic opportunities. New Zealand, like all developed countries, has an ageing population but in some regions and sub-regions the population is ageing at a significantly faster rate than others. There is also disparity in regional shares of international migrants. Local decision-makers face the need to anticipate today how their projected population profiles will impact infrastructure and services demand

Proceedings of the First World Conference on Organic Seed

With over 70 articles and a focus on the scientific and technical aspects of organic seed production, this publication provides information about the current organic seed industry

The impact of grazing cattle on soil physical properties and nutrient concentrations in overland flow from pasture, Part B

This report has been prepared as part of the Environmental Research Technological Development and Innovation Programme 2000–2006. The programme is financed by the Irish Government under the National Development Plan 2000–2006.End of project reportThe loss of nutrients from agricultural land to water bodies is a serious concern in many countries. To gain information on the contribution of grazing animals to diffuse nutrient losses from pasture areas to water, this study looked at the impact of cattle on nutrient concentrations in overland flow and on soil hydrology (bulk density, macroporosity and resistance to penetration). Rainfall simulations to produce overland flow were conducted and soil physical measurements were taken on experimental plots assigned to one of two treatments: 1) cattle had unrestricted access to the plot; 2) cattle could graze the plot but they could neither walk on the plot area nor deposit excrements on it. Areas to which the cattle had free access were characterised by 57%-83% lower macroporosity, by 8%-17% higher bulk density and by 27%-50% higher resistance to penetration than areas from which the cattle were excluded. The nutrients in overland flow from grassland that were affected by the presence of grazing animals were mainly the particulate nitrogen, the organic phosphorus and the potassium concentrations. Overall, the presence of cattle had a longer lasting effect on the soil hydrological parameters measured than on the nutrient concentrations in overland flow.Environmental Protection Agenc

Will current rotational grazing management recommendations suit future intensive pastoral systems?

This review aimed to determine whether current grazing management practices will suit future intensive rotationally grazed pastoral systems. A review of literature on grazing management recommendations found that there was good agreement on the ‘principles’ required for optimal grazing management. While these management practices have stood the test of time, it is concluded that shifts in external pressures (e.g., climate, plant selection and breeding, system intensification) compared to the period when farm-level grazing recommendations were first developed, may necessitate a rethink of current grazing recommendations. Examples include greater pasture masses (e.g., around 4000 kg dry matter (DM)/ha vs. the recommended range of 2600 to 3200 kg DM/ha) where short-rotation (annual, biennial) and tetraploid ryegrasses are sown, provided a consistent post-grazing residual can be maintained (possibly between 40- and 70- mm height). Milder winters and the use of ryegrass cultivars with higher growth rates in late winter/early spring may necessitate either lower target pasture covers at calving or shorter rotation lengths during winter. Longer grazing rotations (well beyond the 3-leaf stage, i.e., equivalent to deferred grazing) can be recommended for select paddocks from mid-spring into summer, to increase seasonal resilience across the farm. Longer residuals (even up to 70 mm - i.e., almost double the recommended height) might improve plant survival during periods of high stress (e.g., heatwaves, droughts). Lastly, diverse species pastures may require specific management to suit dominant species other than perennial ryegrass