Functional and Microstructural Effects of Fillers in Comminuted Meat Products

Fillers are used in comminuted meat products such as wieners to increase yield, improve stability, and modify textural properties. Light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy show that comminutred meat products are mechanical mixtures in which the microstructural features of starch and insoluble protein ingredients are largely retained. The water absorption and gelation properties of these ingredients contribute to the stability and textural firmness. Soluble proteins may improve stability through emulsion formation but the role of emulsion formation i s clearly secondary to that of gelation. The characteristic springy gel structure of wieners is determined by the gelation of myofibrlllar meat prote1ns. Provided the structure of the meat protein gel is not disrupted, fillers will generally increase both textural firmness and stability. Starch and protein fillers have been shown to increase the stability of wiener homogenates prepared at a higher (26 \u27 C) temperature than that which is normally used (16°C) . Light microscopy revealed that the all-meat., wieners had a higher degree of fat agglomeration than did the more stable wieners containing added starch fillers. Electron microscopy revealed that the starch granules participated in the process of physically entrapping the fat globules. Fat globules varied in size and shape, and were observed in environments ranging from low to high protein densities. In surrmary, corrminuted meat pr oducts are shown to have a complex heterogeneous mi crostructure

Plant protein gels as binders in meat product analogues

In response to concerns about the environmental, ethical, and health impacts of meat consumption, plant-based meat analogues have become an important development in the food industry. To obtain prodcts with similar texture and nutritional properties, three major components of meat products (fibrous meat particles, adipose tissue, and myofibrillar meat proteins) need to be replicated. Furthermore, different binding mechanisms, such as heat, acid, and enzyme induction, and drying, are used to create coherent matrices for plant-based meat analogues. In Chapter 2, the study focuses on the use of soy protein gels as binders, with a particular emphasis on a combination of transglutaminase (TG) induced gels. The results indicate that TG-induced soy protein gels offer promising binding strength for meat analogues. Chapter 3 explores a combination of TG and slowly acidifying glucono-delta-lactone (GDL) as a binder, showing that this approach results in acidic gels with enhanced textural properties, making it suitable for acidic meat analogue products like fermented sausages. Chapter 4 applies previously studied soy protein gels as binders for sausage analogues. The research indicates that the choice of binder content influences the cohesiveness and hardness of the sausage analogues, with drying having a significant impact on hardness. In Chapter 5, hydrated gluten is used as a binder, leading to increased cohesiveness and springiness with rising binder content. It emphasizes the importance of adhesive properties between the binder and other particles in achieving desirable meat analogue texture. Overall, the thesis underscores that plant protein suspensions can serve as effective binders for meat analogue products, provided they exhibit both sufficient hardening through network formation and adhesive properties to ensure cohesiveness. It also discusses various formulation and process-based approaches to modulate the texture of meat analogue products.Diskussionen über die ökologischen, ethischen und gesundheitlichen Auswirkungen des Fleischkonsums haben die Entwicklung von pflanzlichen Fleischersatzprodukten gefördert, die zu einem wichtigen Trend der Lebensmittelindustrie geworden sind. Um Produkte mit ähnlicher Textur und ähnlichen Ernährungseigenschaften zu erhalten, müssen drei Hauptbestandteile von Fleischprodukten (faserige Fleischpartikel, Fettgewebe und myofibrilläre Fleischproteine) nachgebildet werden. Außerdem werden verschiedene Bindungsmechanismen wie Hitze-, Säure- und Enzyminduktion sowie Trocknung eingesetzt, um eine kohärente Matrix für pflanzliche Fleischersatzprodukte zu schaffen. In Kapitel 2 konzentriert sich die Dissertation auf die Verwendung von Sojaprotein-Gelen als Bindemittel, mit besonderem Schwerpunkt auf einer Kombination von Transglutaminase (TG)-induzierten Gelen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass TG-induzierte Sojaprotein-Gele ein vielversprechender Binder für Fleischersatzprodukten sind. In Kapitel 3 wird eine Kombination aus TG und langsam säuerndem Glucono-delta-lacton (GDL) als Binder untersucht. Es wird gezeigt, dass dieser Ansatz zu Gelen bei saurem pH mit verbesserten texturellen Eigenschaften führt, wodurch er sich für gesäuerte Fleischersatzprodukte wie Rohwürste eignet. In Kapitel 4 werden die zuvor untersuchten TG-und GDL-induzierten Sojaprotein-Gele als Binder für pflanzliche Würste verwendet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Wahl des Binderanteils die Kohäsion und die Festigkeit der pflanzlichen Würste beeinflusst, wobei die Trocknung einen erheblichen Einfluss auf die Festigkeit hat. In Kapitel 5 wird hydratisiertes Gluten als Binder verwendet, was mit steigendem Binderanteil zu mehr Kohäsion und Elastizität führt. Es wird gezeigt, wie wichtig die Adhäsionseigenschaften zwischen Binder und anderen Partikeln sind, um die gewünschte fleischähnliche Textur zu erreichen. Insgesamt unterstreicht die Arbeit, dass pflanzliche Proteinsuspensionen als wirksame Binder für fleischanaloge Produkte dienen können, sofern sie sowohl eine ausreichende Festigkeit durch Netzwerkbildung als auch adhäsive Eigenschaften aufweisen, um den Zusammenhalt zu gewährleisten. Außerdem werden verschiedene formulierungs- und prozessbasierte Ansätze zur Modulation der Textur von Fleischersatzprodukten erörtert

Evaluation of Textural Properties of Cooked Beef Batters

In the meat science industry the primary method used to determine the binding capabilities of a raw material is to reference the binding index created by Carpenter and Saffle (1964). This index is primarily based on the emulsification capabilities of meats and does not consider texture. As texture is one of the principal factors in determining acceptability of foods (Bourne, 1978), a testing method that captures textural attributes of raw materials is essential. This work was developed to capture raw material texture and cooking loss in a relatively quick manner. Textural properties of cooked beef batters using two different salt levels (0.00% and 1.80%) and five different raw materials (finely textured beef (FTB), 90/10 trim, bull chuck meat, shank meat, and boneless trimmed finely textured beef (BTFT)) were evaluated. Combinations of raw material and salt (N= 46) were analyzed using texture profile analysis. Texture profile analysis parameters: hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, gumminess, and chewiness were analyzed. Samples were also analyzed for pH, fat, moisture, protein, and cook loss. Texture profile analysis parameters: hardness, cohesiveness, and gumminess showed similar patterns when mean values were ranked highest to lowest. Within hardness texture parameter finely textured beef had a lower (P \u3c 0.05) mean with a value of 25.46N. The raw material with a higher (P \u3c 0.05) mean hardness value was shown to be beef shank meat with a mean of 84.47N. Gumminess texture parameter showed a very similar pattern with FTB having the lowest mean value (1710.25) and shank meat showing the highest mean value (6261.07). Cohesiveness texture parameter showed that BTFT had the lowest (P \u3c 0.05) mean value (0.63) and the highest mean value of (0.73). A consistent pattern of FTB as the lowest mean value and shank meat as the highest mean value was observed

Physico-chemical properties of chickpea flour, starch and protein fractions and their utilization in low-fat pork bologna

The main objective of this research was to investigate possible uses of Western-Canadian grown chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) in the form of flour, starch and protein isolates in low-fat pork bologna. In the first study, flour, starch and protein isolates from six chickpea cultivars (three Kabuli and three Desi) from two harvests (2005 and 2006) were evaluated for their physico-chemical, functional and thermal properties. Chickpea flour was made by grinding seed to pass through a 0.1mm screen, whereas protein isolates and starch were prepared by a wet milling process. Protein isolates were prepared from chickpea flour (23.2% protein on average) by alkaline extraction (pH 8.0) and isoelectric precipitation (pH 4.3). Protein isolates contained 72.8-85.3% protein; the starch fraction contained 93.0-98.0% starch. On SDS-PAGE, the chickpea flours and protein isolates contained similar polypeptide bands in the range of 30 to 55 kDa, with three major bands at approximately 50-55, 40 and 30 kDa. Least gelation concentration (LGC) for chickpea flours ranged from 6-14%; LGC for chickpea protein isolates ranged from 10-14%. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of chickpea flour slurries revealed two endothermic peaks. One corresponded to starch gelatinization at approximately 64°C, which was slightly higher than for the starch fraction (~60°C). The second broad peak at approximately 96°C corresponded to the denaturation of the globulin protein fraction, which was also slightly higher than for the protein isolates (~91°C). Chickpea flour exhibited nitrogen solubility index values higher than those of chickpea protein isolates and soy and pea protein isolates. Chickpea protein isolates exhibited water holding capacities, oil absorption capacities, emulsion activity indeces and emulsion stability indeces higher than those of the chickpea flours. CDC Xena (Kabuli) and Myles (Desi), in general, most exhibited properties appropriate for meat applications. In the second study, the efficacy of flour, starch and protein from CDC Xena (Kabuli hereafter) and Myles (Desi hereafter) were investigated in low-fat pork bologna (LFPB). Low-fat pork bologna

THE EFFECT OF SEED TEMPERING AND MICRONIZATION TEMPERATURE ON THE PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CHICKPEA FLOUR AND ITS PERFORMANCE AS A BINDER IN LOW-FAT PORK BOLOGNA

The overall goal of this research was to investigate the effect of seed tempering moisture and micronization temperature on the physicochemical properties of chickpea flour and its subsequent performance as a binder in a model low-fat pork bologna product. This work was divided into three studies. In the first study, the effect of seed tempering moisture (untempered (7% moisture) or tempered to 15 or 22% moisture) and surface micronization temperature (115, 130, 150 or 165oC) and on the physical, chemical and functional properties of chickpea flour were investigated. Chickpea flour became darker as seed moisture or micronization temperature increased. Increasing the micronization temperature at 22% seed moisture increased starch gelatinization from 8.2 to 34.0%. The lipoxygenase activity of chickpea flour also was reduced by micronization of seed. Lipoxygenase activity in flour from non-micronized seed and flour from seed micronized at 115oC without tempering was determined to be 1.98×105 and 1.12×105 units/g of protein, respectively, with no activity found in any other treatments. There was an increase in the water holding (WHC) and oil absorption capacity (OAC) of flour when chickpea seed was tempered to 22% moisture before micronization. Flour from untempered seed and from seed tempered to 15% moisture exhibited small increases in WHC as micronization temperature increased. Micronization had no effect on the OAC of untempered flours, whereas OAC decreased in flour from seed tempered to 15% moisture at higher micronization temperatures. Rapid visco-analysis (RVA) revealed that peak viscosity and final viscosity of all flours from tempered seed decreased with increasing micronization temperature, whereas the trend for both peak viscosity and final viscosity was in the opposite direction with untempered seed. The effect of seed tempering moisture and micronization temperature on the performance of chickpea flour as a binder in a low-fat, comminuted meat product (i.e., low-fat bologna) was investigated in study 2. Both the textural and sensory properties (trained sensory panel, n=12) of the bologna (10% fat) were explored. In study 3, a consumer panel was performed with 101 untrained participants evaluating selected formulations in order to better understand consumer purchasing behaviour as it relates to comminuted meat products containing a pulse-based binder. Bologna containing flour from micronized chickpea was more yellow in colour (CIE system, trained panel and consumer panel evaluation) compared to those with added wheat flour or no binder. There was no effect of tempering or micronization conditions on cook loss or expressible moisture of bologna containing chickpea flour, whereas bologna produced with wheat flour had the greatest WHC among all bologna treatments. Texture profile analysis (TPA) showed that the addition of chickpea flour from seed tempered to 15% or 22% seed moisture and micronized to 115, 130 or 150oC or flour from untempered seed micronized to 130 or 150oC led to an increase in hardness to a level similar to that of bologna containing wheat flour; sensory evaluation by the trained panel did not produce a similar result. A difference in flavour intensity was not found among all bolognas containing chickpea flour during sensory evaluation. Bologna produced with chickpea flour from seed micronized to 150oC and from seed tempered to 22% moisture and micronized to 115oC was comparable to bologna containing wheat flour with respect to overall texture, overall juiciness and flavour acceptability. These results demonstrated that selection of appropriate seed tempering conditions and micronization temperatures is important with respect to the utilization of chickpea flour as a binder in low-fat bologna

Chemical, physical and sensory characteristics of ground and comminuted pork with various fat levels and corn milling secondary products

The cholesterol content of raw and cooked ground pork with fat contents of 4, 9, 18 and 23% was determined. Cholesterol content increased as fat level increased in the raw pork, but cholesterol content of broiled pork patties was not different among fat levels;Dry- and wet-milled corn germ flours, corn gluten meal and zein at levels of 0, 2.5 and 5% were added to ground pork of various fat percentages. Raw and broiled patties were analyzed for proximate composition, color, Instron compression and cooking loss. Broiled pork patties containing zein were evaluated by a sensory panel;Dry- and wet-milled germ flour addition at the 5% level decreased cooking losses, 9 and 7.5%, respectively, when compared to control patties. Zein addition to ground pork reduced cooking loss 4.2% when compared to ground pork without zein. Corn gluten meal addition to pork did not influence yield. Instron compression values decreased as the amount of dry-milled germ flour increased in ground pork, but increased with the addition of zein and corn gluten meal. Sensory tenderness and pork flavor intensity decreased and off-flavor intensity increased when zein was added to pork patties;Chemical, physical and sensory properties of cooked frankfurters of three fat levels with 0 or 3.5% dry- and wet-milled corn germ flours were investigated. Dry-milled corn germ flour addition decreased fat content, sensory tenderness, juiciness and cured flavor intensity and increased chewiness of frankfurters. Cured flavor intensity decreased and off-flavor intensity, Instron compression values and cooking loss increased with the addition of wet-milled corn germ flour;The protein, starch, crude fiber and pentosan contents and water hydration and oil-binding capacities of germ meals were investigated. Fifty-five percent of the total germ protein was extracted from dry-milled corn germ meal with 0.1 N sodium hydroxide. Sixteen protein bands were separated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The dry-milled germ residue remaining after protein extraction was found to have a higher water hydration capacity (3.6 ml/g) than the protein (1.3 ml/g);Germ flours were effective finders in ground pork, but did not increase yield in a frankfurter model system. The high water hydration capacity of germ meal is probably due to the fiber components

Gelation properties of porcine muscle proteins

The effects of linearly increasing heating rates (17, 38 and 85°C/hr) and protein concentration (10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/mL) on thermally induced gels made of extracted salt-soluble proteins were evaluated. Gel strength analyses indicated that the force needed to compress muscle protein gels decreased when heating rate was increased. A greater water loss from compressed gels occurred at protein concentrations of 10 and 20 mg/mL than at 30 to 50 mg/mL. Above 30 mg/mL, water loss tended to be relatively constant. Protein loss in the expelled water, after compression, was less for the slower heating rate, and larger as heating rate increased. The total amount of protein in the expelled water increased with increasing protein concentration in the system. SDS gel electrophoresis demonstrated a change in some of the expelled proteins at different heating rates.;Thermally induced protein gels were made using extracted salt-soluble proteins from stress susceptible pigs determined to be PSE. Effects of heating rates (17, 39 and 93°C/hr) at various protein concentrations (23, 34, 48 and 54 mg/ml) were evaluated. Gel strength of PSE extracts was 45% of the controls at gels from the first compression curve increased with increasing protein concentrations at all heating rates; however, gel strength was greater for slow heating rates than for fast heating rates in both PSE and normal samples. Percent water loss was greater for PSE extracts than for controls at the same protein concentration. Losses of 47% and 36% for PSE and controls, respectively, were observed at a protein level of 54 mg/ml protein. There was no heating rate effect on water losses in either case. Protein loss was lower, for both PSE and control, at low protein concentrations than at high protein content in the range studied. Slow heating rates resulted in less protein loss, for both PSE and control, while faster heating rates gave higher protein losses in the exuded water.;The effect of soy protein isolate (ISP) and sodium caseinate (SC) on thermally induced protein gels made of extracted salt-soluble porcine muscle proteins were studied. Effects of heating rates (17, 39 and 93°C/hr) at various protein concentrations (32, 43 and 54 mg/ml) were evaluated for interactions between meat and non-meat proteins. Gel strength of protein extracts with 2% ISP added was increased about 24%; when 2% SC was added gel strength increased about 70%. Water holding capacity of protein extracts was improved by 37% and 4% when 2% SC and 2% ISP were added, respectively

Effects of Whey Protein Concentrate, Phosphate, and Sodium Hydroxide on Texture and Acceptability of Turkey and Beef Rolls

Processed turkey rolls were prepared with 1 or 3% whey protein concentrates WPC-50 (pH=5.80), WPC-60 (pH=4.53) and WPC-75 (pH=6.85} containing 50, 60 and 75% protein along with controls (phosphate and no phosphate). Control rolls made with 0.5% phosphate had the highest bind strength, and sensory evaluation scores. Only WPC-75 (1%) was acceptable as a binding agent and flavor enhancer. WPC-60 reduced pink discoloration of rolls, but flavor, bind and cohesiveness scores were unacceptably low. WPC-50 was not an effective binding agent. In general, rolls made with 3% WPC had lower scores for intensity of turkey flavor. Bind strength and sensory characteristics were compared for restructured beef rolls formulated with 1% salt, 0.375% sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) or O. 07 % sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and 5, 10 or 20% added water. Controls also had 1% salt, but no STPP or NaOH. Relative bind strength of rolls was STPP \u3e NaOH \u3e controls. Addition of 20% water reduced bind strength. Cooked yield, moisture content, beef flavor and texture of NaOH rolls were similar to STPP rolls. Bind strength and cohesiveness of NaOH rolls were lower than STPP rolls, but still acceptable. For measuring bind strength of turkey and beef rolls, a sensitive and inexpensive penetrometer was developed. It was equipped with a top-loading balance, accessories, IBM-compatible personal computer and Quick-Basic program that allowed continuously collected penetration force data . at specific time intervals. Penetrometer bind strength and taste panel cohesiveness of turkey and beef rolls were highly correlated (r=0.89 and r=0.93, respectively)

Hydrocolloids in processed meat

Hydrocolloids function as water binders and texture modifying agents in meat products. They may also be have potential as cryoprotectants to ensure long term stability of proteins during frozen storage. The three primary objectives of this research were: first, to evaluate the effects of hydrocolloids such as starch and carrageenan on the quality characteristics of hams containing high levels of added water. Second, to investigate the cryoprotectant effects of hydrocolloids such as maltodextrins and corn syrup solids for freeze-thaw stability in mechanically deboned pork. Finally, to study the quality and sensory characteristics of pork sausage made from mechanically deboned pork containing these cryoprotectants;The first part of the study evaluated the functionality of starch and carrageenan in hams containing 55% added water. Starch and carrageenan had opposite effects: increasing the level of starch increased perception of juiciness and purge was increased. Addition of carrageenan increased cooking yields, but decreased purge and resulted in a sensory perception of reduced juiciness;The second part of the study examined the changes in functional properties (protein solubility, gel-forming ability and emulsifying capacity) of mechanically deboned pork over 120 days frozen storage, as affected by addition of cryoprotectants (5 DE, 10 DE maltodextrins and 20 DE corn syrup solids). Proteins were destabilized during frozen storage as reflected by decreases in protein solubility, gel strength and emulsifying capacity. Freeze-induced protein denaturation was reduced effectively by 10 DE maltodextrins and 20 DE corn syrup solids used at the 8% level, and, less effectively when used at the 4% level. The 5 DE maltodextrin used at the 4% level adversely affected salt-soluble protein extractability during long term frozen storage;The third part of the study evaluated changes in the quality and sensory characteristics of pork sausage made from mechanically deboned pork as affected by the addition of cryoprotectants (5 DE, 10 DE maltodextrins and 20 DE corn syrup solids) during 6 months of frozen storage. Incorporation of cryoprotectants in mechanically deboned pork significantly improved the storage stability (oxidative rancidity) and affected the quality (texture) of the pork sausage. Sensory evaluation showed the most notable quality differences to be color, tenderness and flavor desirability

Petfood: physico-chemical characteristics and functional properties of meat by-products and mechanically separated chicken (MSC) in a high-moisture model system

Two studies were conducted to determine the physico-chemical characteristics and functional properties of selected pork and poultry by-products used in the formulation of high-moisture petfood;In the first study, pork by-products (lung lobes, kidneys), chicken viscera (head, feet and viscera) and MSC were evaluated for proximate composition, protein distribution and connective tissue. Proximate composition varied among meat by-products and MSC. Pork by-products contained the highest level of crude protein (p 0.05) affected by salt (2%), phosphate (0.3%) or NaOH (0.075%). Chicken viscera had the lowest (p \u3c 0.05) mean texture measurements among the meat by-products and MSC. Strong negative correlations (p \u3c 0.05) were obtained for texture with total collagen, soluble collagen and high ionic strength soluble (HIS) proteins;Additional research is warranted to determine if texture and % WRC are significantly improved by the addition of MSC to mixtures of pork and poultry by-products in combination with inorganic salts