Definition and preliminary design of the LAWS (Laser Atmospheric Wind Sounder). Volume 1, phase 2: Executive summary

The objective of phase 1 of the LAWS study was to define and perform a preliminary design for the Laser Atmospheric Wind Sounder (LAWS) instrument. The definition phase consisted of identifying realistic concepts for LAWS and analyzing them in sufficient detail to be able to choose the most promising one for the LAWS application. System and subsystem configurations were then developed for the chosen concept. The concept and subsequent configurations were to be compatible with two prospective platforms--the Japanese Polar Orbiting Platform (JPOP) and as an attached payload on the Space Station Freedom. After a thorough and objective concept selection process, we chose a heterodyne detection Doppler lidar using a CO2 laser transmitter operating at 9.1 microns over a 2.1 micron solid state system. The choice of the CO2 approach over solid-state reflects the advanced state of development of CO2 lasers, its maturity in ground-based systems and the eased subsystem requirements associated with the longer wavelength. The CO2 lidar concept was then analyzed in detail to arrive at a configuration for the instrument and its major subsystems. Our approach throughout the configuration design was to take a systems perspective and trade requirements between subsystems, wherever possible, to arrive at configurations which made maximum use of existing, proven technology or relatively straightforward extensions to existing technology to reduce risk and cost. At the conclusion of Phase 1 we arrived at a configuration for LAWS which meets the performance requirements, yet which is less complex than previous designs of space-based wind sensors (e.g. Windsat), employs lightweight technologies to meet its weight goals (less than 800kg) and sufficiently flexible to offer various operational scenarios with power requirements from about 2 kW to 3 kW. The Phase 1 Final Report was released in March 1990. The 21-month Phase 2 began in October 1990. The requirement to accommodate LAWS as an attached payload on Space Station Freedom was deleted and the orbit altitude for the Japanese polar orbiting platform was changed from 824 km to 705 km. The power allocated to LAWS was reduced to 2.2 kW from 3 kW. Subsequently the availability of a Japanese Polar Orbiting Platform was called into question and LAWS accommodation studies were continued using a conceptual, ATLAS-launched platform supplied by MSFC. In March 1991 a modification to the original contracts was funded to provide a LAWS laser breadboard which could demonstrate all the performance requirements of the LAWS laser. Also funded as part of the same contract extension was a lifetest demonstration using an existing laser at STI. The breadboard extension was an eighteen month effort and the period of performance was therefore extended to September 30, 1992

Give and Take: Political Competition, Participation and Public Finance in 20th Century Latin America

Rational choice models predict that political competition and political participation have opposite effects on the size of government. We investigate these theories using data from a panel of 18 Latin American countries during the 20th century. Our research builds evidence for the prediction that reforms enhancing political competition tend to limit the size of government. Furthermore, we find that reforms which remove literacy requirements from franchise laws are associated with government expansion, while changes in women's suffrage laws have no impact on the size of government. Our findings demonstrate the empirical relevance of the distinction between political competition and participation

Understanding Occupational and Skill Demand in New Jersey's Finance Industry

The finance industry in New Jersey employs over 200,000 people. Many more workers benefit from the state's proximity to the finance industry in New York City. Jobs in the industry are evolving rapidly in response to national and global trends, such as deregulation, increasingly complex laws, and new technologies. As jobs change, skill requirements for both entry-level and incumbent workers increase. This report summarizes the skill, knowledge, and educational requirements of key finance occupations and identifies strategies for meeting the workforce challenges facing the industry

Restrictive Voter Identification Requirements

Many states have passed laws that go beyond the federal Help America Vote Act (HAVA) and require additional unnecessary identification either at registration or voting. These restrictions hinder American citizens' efforts to exercise their right and responsibility to participate in elections. Voter identification laws include requirements such as proof of citizenship, government-issued photo ID, other types of photo ID, or a broad range of documents not necessarily including a photo.Several ID laws have prompted lawsuits from voting rights advocates because they disproportionately impact the elderly, students, women, people with disabilities, low income people and people of color. This briefing paper outlines the current state of legislation around the country regarding additional identification at voting, summarizes recent litigation, and discusses the reasons why additional voter identification is an unnecessary burden designed to address a problem -- voter impersonation -- that is remarkably rare

License to Kill: How Lax Concealed Carry Laws Can Combine with Stand Your Ground to Produce Deadly Results

The shooting death of Trayvon Martin and George Zimmerman's subsequent acquittal have focused the nation's attention on expansive self-defense laws -- so-called Stand Your Ground laws -- that enable an individual to use deadly force even in situations in which lesser force would suffice or in which the individual could safely retreat to avoid further danger. Leaders from around the country, including President Barack Obama and U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder, have questioned how Florida's law -- which is similar to laws enacted in 21 other states -- may have contributed to the circumstances that led to Martin's death.Yet the Martin case also implicates another set of laws: the state laws governing who may carry concealed firearms -- the laws that put a gun in Zimmerman's hands in the first place. Under Florida law, even individuals such as Zimmerman, who have a criminal history and a record of domestic abuse, are generally entitled to a concealed carry permit, as long as they are not barred from gun possession under federal law and as long as their offense does not meet a very narrow range of additional exclusions under state law. If Zimmerman had applied for a permit in one of the many states with stronger permit requirements, his history of violence and domestic abuse would likely have disqualified him from obtaining a concealed carry permit. This case might then have had a very different outcome.These bodies of law -- Stand Your Ground and concealed carry permitting -- concern issues that are traditionally left to the states. In many ways, these issues are appropriately decided at the state level; the self-defense and concealed carry laws of New Jersey should not be imposed on Montana and vice versa. But there is an appropriate federal role. The federal government should ensure that states do not enact laws that have racially disparate impacts or significantly jeopardize public safety

The Prosecutor as Minister of Justice

Times have changed. Today, prosecutors are on top of the world. Their powers are enormous, and constantly reinforced by sympathetic legislatures and courts. The awful instruments of the criminal law, as Justice Frankfurter described the system,1 are today supplemented with broad new crimes, easier proof requirements, heavier sentencing laws, and an extremely cooperative judiciary, from district and state judges, to the highest Court in the land

Governing Board Accountability: Competition, Regulation and Accreditation

This article examines the three primary ways in which the governing boards of American colleges and universities are held to account: (1) competition; (2) regulation, including state nonprofit corporation laws, tax laws, and licensing laws; and (3) accreditation. It begins by tracing how lay (meaning nonfaculty) governing boards became the dominant form of governance in American higher education. It argues that governing boards provide American institutions of higher education with an exceptional degree of autonomy from state control and that, together with the shared governance approach that gives faculties primary responsibility for academic matters, they have been a vital factor in producing the leading system of higher education in the world. The article concludes with recommendations for improving board oversight including avoiding the reputational harm caused by excessive compensation or conflicts of interest, recognizing that the public expects the nondistribution constraint to be extended to such academic goods as admissions and graduation requirements, and understanding the risk posed by increased government control of accrediting bodies

The impact of ballot access restrictions on electoral competition: Evidence from a natural experiment

Measuring the effect of ballot access restrictions on electoral competition is complicated because the stringency of ballot access regulations cannot be treated as being exogenous to candidates' entry decisions. This paper exploits the 1968 U.S. Supreme Court decision to strike down Ohio's ballot access laws as a natural experiment to overcome the endogeneity problem. The evidence from difference-in-difference estimations suggests that the court decision and the accompanying sharp decrease in Ohio's petition requirements resulted in major parties facing a signifcant increase in competition from third party and independent candidates.Ballot access; Petition requirements; Electoral competition; Natural experiment

The impact of ballot access restrictions on electoral competition: Evidence from a natural experiment

Measuring the effect of ballot access restrictions on electoral competition is compli- cated because the stringency of ballot access regulations cannot be treated as being exogenous to candidates' entry decisions. This paper exploits the 1968 U.S. Supreme Court decision to strike down Ohio's ballot access laws as a natural experiment to overcome the endogeneity problem. The evidence from difference-in-difference esti- mations suggests that the court decision and the accompanying sharp decrease in Ohio's petition requirements resulted in major parties facing a signifficant increase in competition from third party and independent candidates.Ballot access, petition requirements, electoral competition, natural experiment

America Under Fire: An Analysis of Gun Violence in the United States and the Link to Weak Gun Laws

In 2013, the Center for American Progress conducted a study to assess the correlation between the relative strength or weakness of a state's gun laws, as measured by the Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, and rates of gun violence in the state across 10 categories of gun violence or gun-related crimes. Consistent with the research, the CAP study found a strong correlation between strong gun laws and lower rates of gun violence.In the 3.5 years since that study, a number of things have changed that warrant revisiting that research. Many states have acted to strengthen their gun laws: Since the mass shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School, eight states have enacted laws to require universal background checks—bringing the total number of states that have enacted such laws to 18—and 20 states have strengthened their laws to help keep guns out of the hands of domestic abusers. Unfortunately, other states have taken the opposite approach, loosening laws regarding where guns may be carried and weakening or eliminating concealed carry permit requirements. In addition, improvements made in the collection of data relating to gun violence now allow more precise tracking of events such as mass shootings and fatal shootings by law enforcement officers.In this report, the authors revisit CAP's 2013 analysis with a revised methodology, some new categories of gun violence, and updated state grades from the Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. The report provides a state ranking across key indicators of gun violence, then uses these rankings to calculate an overall Gun Violence Index score for each state. Using this score, the authors assessed the correlation between the rate of overall gun violence in the state and the relative strength or weakness of each state's gun laws