Promover a capacidade de perdoar : uma revisão sistemática da literatura

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The role of cognitive control in prosocial behavior – Investigating the neural foundations of retribution and forgiveness

Forgiveness is a highly relevant ability for a satisfied life with long-lasting relationships. It is hypothesized that cognitive control enables forgiveness through the inhibition of baser revenge seeking feelings. For investigating the exact underlying mechanisms, a set of four studies was run. In order to study the ability to forgive, the participants first played an ultimatum game, in which they learned that some opponents are fair and some are unfair. Following this implicit learning experience the roles were changed and in a subsequent dictator game the participants had to split up money between themselves and the opponents of the previous game. Regarding the previously unfair opponents they had to decide if they wanted to forgive (with allocating a fair amount of money) or to take revenge (with allocating an unfair amount of money). This paradigm sequence was combined in a first study with inhibitory theta-burst stimulation of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), resulting in the causal conclusion that cognitive control is needed for forgiveness processes as after the stimulation the participants were significantly more revenge seeking. In another study, participants with high and low cognitive control were compared. Participants with low cognitive control were significantly more revenge seeking, whereas, participants with high cognitive control were less revenge seeking. Concluding from the results of a regression analysis this difference was (partly) caused by different emotional foundations of the behavior, with sympathy as a relevant factor in the high cognitive control group and revenge in the low cognitive control group. In a third study the gaming paradigms (ultimatum game and dictator game) were used in combination with activating theta-burst stimulation of the right DLPFC in a highly impulsive group which is known to be more revenge seeking than the average. With higher activation in the right DLPFC it was not possible to increase the forgiveness behavior towards the unfair opponents. Surprisingly, the activating neuromodulation increased the generosity towards fair opponents. In an additional study with a different paradigm the ability of emotion regulation (which is assumed to be a key player in forgiveness processes) in participants with low vs. high cognitive control was measured. It was shown that participants with low cognitive control failed, especially in implicit emotion regulation which is essential for daily life forgiveness processes. Based on these results a forgiveness model is proposed. According to this model the probability to forgive a wrongdoer is influenced by cultural/cognitive response tendencies and state/trait emotional tendencies. Cognitive control especially, but also the experienced emotions play a crucial role in forgiveness processes according to this model

Investigation of functional near-infrared spectroscopy signal quality and development of the hemodynamic phase correlation signal

SIGNIFICANCE: There is a longstanding recommendation within the field of fNIRS to use oxygenated ( HbO 2 ) and deoxygenated (HHb) hemoglobin when analyzing and interpreting results. Despite this, many fNIRS studies do focus on HbO 2 only. Previous work has shown that HbO 2 on its own is susceptible to systemic interference and results may mostly reflect that rather than functional activation. Studies using both HbO 2 and HHb to draw their conclusions do so with varying methods and can lead to discrepancies between studies. The combination of HbO 2 and HHb has been recommended as a method to utilize both signals in analysis. AIM: We present the development of the hemodynamic phase correlation (HPC) signal to combine HbO 2 and HHb as recommended to utilize both signals in the analysis. We use synthetic and experimental data to evaluate how the HPC and current signals used for fNIRS analysis compare. APPROACH: About 18 synthetic datasets were formed using resting-state fNIRS data acquired from 16 channels over the frontal lobe. To simulate fNIRS data for a block-design task, we superimposed a synthetic task-related hemodynamic response to the resting state data. This data was used to develop an HPC-general linear model (GLM) framework. Experiments were conducted to investigate the performance of each signal at different SNR and to investigate the effect of false positives on the data. Performance was based on each signal's mean T -value across channels. Experimental data recorded from 128 participants across 134 channels during a finger-tapping task were used to investigate the performance of multiple signals [ HbO 2 , HHb, HbT, HbD, correlation-based signal improvement (CBSI), and HPC] on real data. Signal performance was evaluated on its ability to localize activation to a specific region of interest. RESULTS: Results from varying the SNR show that the HPC signal has the highest performance for high SNRs. The CBSI performed the best for medium-low SNR. The next analysis evaluated how false positives affect the signals. The analyses evaluating the effect of false positives showed that the HPC and CBSI signals reflect the effect of false positives on HbO 2 and HHb. The analysis of real experimental data revealed that the HPC and HHb signals provide localization to the primary motor cortex with the highest accuracy. CONCLUSION: We developed a new hemodynamic signal (HPC) with the potential to overcome the current limitations of using HbO 2 and HHb separately. Our results suggest that the HPC signal provides comparable accuracy to HHb to localize functional activation while at the same time being more robust against false positives

A Systematic Review of Integrated Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) Studies

Background: The capacity for TMS to elicit neural activity and manipulate cortical excitability has created significant expectation regarding its use in both cognitive and clinical neuroscience. However, the absence of an ability to quantify stimulation effects, particularly outside of the motor cortex, has led clinicians and researchers to pair noninvasive brain stimulation with noninvasive neuroimaging techniques. fNIRS, as an optical and wearable neuroimaging technique, is an ideal candidate for integrated use with TMS. Together, TMS+fNIRS may offer a hybrid alternative to “blind” stimulation to assess NIBS in therapy and research.Objective: In this systematic review, the current body of research into the transient and prolonged effects of TMS on fNIRS-based cortical hemodynamic measures while at rest and during tasks are discussed. Additionally, studies investigating the relation of fNIRS to measures of cortical excitability as produced by TMS-evoked Motor-Evoked-Potential (MEP) are evaluated. The aim of this review is to outline the integrated use of TMS+fNIRS and consolidate findings related to use of fNIRS to monitor changes attributed to TMS and the relationship of fNIRS to cortical excitability itself.Methods: Key terms were searched in PubMed and Web-of-Science to identify studies investigating the use of both fNIRS and TMS. Works from Google-Scholar and referenced works in identified papers were also assessed for relevance. All published experimental studies using both fNIRS and TMS techniques in the study methodology were included.Results: A combined literature search of neuroimaging and neurostimulation studies identified 53 papers detailing the joint use of fNIRS and TMS. 22/53 investigated the immediate effects of TMS at rest in the DLPFC and M1 as measured by fNIRS. 21/22 studies reported a significant effect in [HbO] for 40/54 stimulation conditions with 14 resulting an increase and 26 in a decrease. While 15/22 studies also reported [HbR], only 5/37 conditions were significant. Task effects of fNIRS+TMS were detailed in 16 studies, including 10 with clinical populations. Most studies only reported significant changes in [HbO] related measures. Studies comparing fNIRS to changes in MEP-measured cortical excitability suggest that fNIRS measures may be spatially more diffuse but share similar traits.Conclusion: This review summarizes the progress in the development of this emerging hybrid neuroimaging & neurostimulation methodology and its applications. Despite encouraging progress and novel applications, a lack of replicated works, along with highly disparate methodological approaches, highlight the need for further controlled studies. Interpretation of current research directions, technical challenges of TMS+fNIRS, and recommendations regarding future works are discussed

Explorando a misoginia online : síntese das evidências qualitativas dos discursos de ódio

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