Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana: Enhancing Impact through Demand Driven Innovations, Research Report IDC-7

The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, has launched the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) to address India’s key agricultural challenges in the 21st century i.e., to reduce poverty and ensure food security for the growing population in the face of climate change, scarce and limited water and land resources. This initiative proposes to provide irrigation to every farm in the country (Har Khet Ko Pani) and improve water use efficiency (Per Drop More Crop and Income). It aims to bring together various schemes and programs for water harvesting, conservation and efficient management in order to ensure there is enough water for agriculture. This program also aims to harness the potential of agriculture by effectively utilizing green (soil moisture) and blue water (irrigation) for improving efficiency, sustainability, equity and resilience at the farm level, especially in rainfed, marginal and fragile areas, using an integrated approach..

Modelling the impacts of changes in agricultural management practices on water resources with declining hydrometeorological data in the Uthukela Catchment.

Master of Science in Hydrology. University of KwaZulu-Natal. Pietermaritzburg, 2018.In order to meet the country’s growing demand for food, and to transform the economy of rural communities, the South African Government aims to develop the agricultural sector in the uThukela Catchment, KwaZulu-Natal Province. Intensification of agriculture will depend on the availability of water resources, with subsequent impacts on the quality and quantity of water resources. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the impacts of proposed agricultural developments on the water flows in the upper uThukela Catchment using the multi-purpose, multi-soil-layered, daily time step ACRU model. The first phase of the study was to confirm the model’s ability to simulate flows in three, relatively small, gauged subcatchments of the uThukela catchment (Quaternary Catchments V11K, V14C and V31F), using current land cover and climate information extending to present day. However, the documented decline in the number of, and quality of data from, hydrometeorological stations, particularly since the year 2000, was concerning. Therefore, the impact of this decline on model performance was investigated in the selected subcatchments by comparing simulated flows to available observed flows in a confirmation study. Configuration of the model to present day conditions was restricted by the unavailability of rainfall stations. In cases where stations were available, there were no nearby stations to patch or compare to, when the record had missing or suspicious values. Given this, the model was set to run from 1960 to the latest record date available for catchments V14C and V31F. For V14C, the model performance decreased when the model was run from 1960 to 2012, compared to 1960-1999. Although a slightly better performance was obtained at V31F, the simulation time period was reduced to 1960-1999 for both catchments due to uncertainties with post 2000 rainfall and streamflow data. However, V14C continued to prove problematic and further investigation using of the Indicators of Hydrological Alteration software revealed a marked change in the flow characteristics between 1980 and 1981. No documentation of developments or substantial changes in the catchment could be sourced. Therefore, Quaternary Catchment (QC) V14C was excluded from further analysis. The ACRU model adequately simulated the flows for V11K and V31F, with the simulated flows being more representative of the observed flows in V31F. With the ability of the ACRU model to simulate the flows in the upper uThukela catchment under various land uses confirmed, the model could be used to investigate the impacts of agricultural land management scenarios on water flows. The agricultural land management scenarios were developed from the national and local government’s plan to expand agriculture to transform the socioeconomic status of the uThukela catchment. To develop scenarios for larger scale modelling, numerous scenarios were tested at QCs V31F and V11K. However, V11K was not responsive to changes in land use; therefore, results from the catchment were not used. For large scale modelling, the Upper uThukela (V1) Secondary Catchment was selected. The scenarios considered were: (i) increasing the fraction of irrigated commercial agriculture into currently dryland commercial fields, (ii) increasing subsistence agriculture through reduction of commercial agriculture (i.e. land reform), (iii) conversion of dryland commercial agriculture into crops with biofuel potential (iv) increased burning, (v) intensified land degradation and (vi) rehabilitation of degraded areas. These were developed from current land cover and compared to a simulation assuming natural conditions. The runoff components of interest were baseflow, quickflow and streamflow, as well as the low, median and high streamflows. Irrigation resulted in the highest flow reductions, with permanent cropping and planting two crops per year resulting in the largest decrease in streamflow at V31F and V1, when compared to natural conditions. These scenarios also had the greates impact on low flows. Plantation of biofuels increased flows, with soya beans having a higher impact on baseflows. Intensified burning and degradation increased quickflow and streamflow, while increasing subsistence agriculture and rehabilitation of degraded areas had little impact on flows. These results were generated from poor climate and land cover input information. Therefore, these results cannot be used at a definite decision-making tool, rather as an indication of the possible impacts of land use change on flows at the uThukela Catchment and similar regions. Efforts should be made to improve and maintain hydrometeorological monitoring stations. In addition, there should be more initiatives to collect land cover and water use data at various catchments in order to improve the quality of input data. Lastly, the current version of the ACRU model requires high computational power for large catchment simulations, lowering the model performance. Investigation into better versions or possible development of the current version should be conducted to enable modellers to finish large projects in allocated time

Estimation of the hydrological response to invasive alien plants in the upper Blyde River catchment.

Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.The change in total evaporation through alteration of vegetative cover is a major influence on catchment hydrology. The transformation of grassland and scrub habitats to commercial tree plantations, as well as the uncontrolled spread of invasive alien plants (lAPs) to ecologically sensitive systems, riparian zones in particular, are a threat to biodiversity and integrity of natural systems. Furthermore, critical low flow periods are of particular concern to water managers and local communities, as well as the associated impacts of potentially compromised water resources for rural livelihoods. The Working for Water (WfW) programme was implemented in 1995 by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry and its main goals are to remove lAPs in order to improve water supply while at the same time providing employment to marginalised communities. In this study, the hydrological response to lAPs in the Upper Blyde River catchment is assessed. This is done by developing a classification structure for lAPs as a land use using detailed mapping available from WfW for use in a hydrological model, and then configuring and running the ACRU hydrological model for the Upper Blyde River catchment in Mpumalanga. In the classification, lAPs are represented as spatially explicit land use units in the ACRU model according to the type of habitat they invade, viz. riparian or non-riparian; as well as by type of plant, i.e. tree or shrub; and their area and density. The results obtained from simulating catchment hydrological responses using the ACRU model indicate that riparian lAPs have a great er impact on streamflow than do landscape invasions alone, specifically during periods of low flow. An increase in streamflow after removing lAPs from riparian and non-riparian habitats is a consistent outcome at both subcatchment and catchment scales. Using a spatially explicit method in order to model the hydrological response of different types of lAPs for different density classes in both riparian and non-riparian habitats is found to be a useful technique in determining the degree to which lAPs influence catchment streamflow. Recommendations for future research include focussing hydrological assessments of lAPs on critical flow periods and their impacts on water quality; investigation into the water use of invasive and indigenous vegetation for more accurate estimates from modelling exercises; and finally, applying the classification system for lAPs with other land use sensitive hydrological models for validation, and their wider application by incorporating methodologies into guidelines for use by WfW at national and provincial level

The potential impacts of up-scaled rainwater harvesting on ecosystem goods and services in the Potshini and Makanya catchments.

Master of Science in Environmental Hydrology. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg 2016.Water scarcity is fast becoming a global concern, with at least each continent facing water-related issues regarding quantity, quality and delivery. An estimated 8.8% of South Africans do not have access to potable water, according to the World Wildlife Fund’s 2011 South African census (2016). The inaccessibility to water for domestic, agricultural or economic activities directly impacts on food security and poverty. Communities living in rural surroundings and depending directly on the environment to support their livelihoods are most affected by water shortages. The 1.2 km2 Potshini Catchment, located in the foothills of the Drakensburg Mountains in South Africa, and the 300 km2 Makanya Catchment, situated on the western side of the South Pare Mountains in Tanzania, provide good case studies to assess how communities, vulnerable to poverty and food security, cope with water shortages. Both catchments have well-established rainwater harvesting (RWH) networks that supplement the rainfed subsistence crops. RWH is a method of capturing, conveying and storing rainwater and runoff for future use. It is a valuable practice in agriculture, intended to improve the availability of water to crops towards the end of high rainfall months and during dry-spells. The conservation of water, in these instances, has the potential to secure and improve livelihoods, and to lessen the pressure placed on ecosystem goods and services. Albeit that RWH is an alternative water innovation, supporting the ideals of integrative water resource management, the impacts of up-scaled RWH on streamflow are still to be determined. Little is known about how ecosystem goods and services will respond to the expansion of RWH, as well as the presence of a feedback mechanism. Therefore, the aim of this study was gain a better understanding of the nature of RWH and its potential impacts on the environment in the form of a literature review. Secondly, a hydrological method or tool was developed to understand the impacts of RWH on ecosystem goods and services, in order to improve the catchment management of upstream and downstream communities alike. This was achieved by determining the relevant ecosystem goods and services within each catchment. Thereafter, the impacts of RWH on streamflow and soil moisture were determined by hydrological modelling of each catchment, using the ACRU Model. Using a scenario-based approach, the limits to RWH may be determined by increasing the level of water harvested in each case. Once the significance of this has been determined, the impact on related ecosystem goods and services can be understood. The Makanya and Potshini Catchments are located in rural settlements, whose population relies mostly on the environment for daily survival. Ecosystem goods and services, such as water supply and regulation, are high priority benefits. Water is supplied, filtered and purified through natural processes in the environment, whilst floods and droughts are regulated. Through the promotion of infiltration and reduced flow velocities by vegetation, the ecosystem controls the harsh effects of natural variability. Soil formation and retention assists the growth of crops through the facilitation of soil water infiltration and the transport of nutrients from the topsoil. Other basic goods and services within the catchments are the provision of food (fauna and flora), raw materials, and natural habitats for breeding, as well as cultural and recreational areas. The ACRU Model was successful in simulating daily streamflow and soil moisture in the Makanya and Potshini Catchments. A general reduction in streamflow as a result of increased RWH was modelled over the 56-year study period between 1952 and 2007, for both catchments. A virtual dam within the ACRU model is created to capture rainfall. Increased RWH scenarios are based on 30%, 60% and 90% of the current RWH conditions. It has been estimated that harvesting runoff in the drier months of the year could have the greatest impact on the environment, as low flows are initially reduced by a lack of rainfall. As RWH was increased, a gradual reduction in baseflow was modelled for the Potshini Catchment, whilst baseflows were reduced to zero mm in the Makanya Catchment, as rivers ran dry in low rainfall seasons. When compared to the baseline, the cumulative streamflow over the study period was reduced by 50% and 30%, respectively, in the Makanya and Potshini Catchments. This reduction was significant at all levels (30%, 60% and 90% increase in RWH relative to current conditions) of RWH in Makanya, whilst scenarios up-scaling RWH over 60% had a significant impact on the ecosystem in Potshini (95% confidence interval based on a t-test). The introduction and up-scaling of RWH had a positive impact on soil moisture, increasing total soil water content values far above the baseline values. Harvested water is allocated for irrigation to improve crop yields. Increased water availability improved crop yields up to 50% (assuming no other crop stress occurred), particularly in the Potshini Catchment, thus potentially improving food security within rural communities. Improved soil moisture through RWH acts a means of mitigating the reduction of streamflow downstream. Water is reallocated in the ecosystem and used to improve the delivery of goods and services for human benefit. Whilst, the environment may have the ability to absorb the initial shock, the continual expansion of RWH has the potential to reduce the resilience of the environment and the goods and services they provide. The large-scale employment of RWH over a long period can attest to a portion of the degradation found in the Makanya Catchment. This is commonly known as a negative feedback mechanism. As a result of improved crop yields, greater expanses of the catchment are converted to runoff generation areas, to increase the opportunities for harvesting water. As agriculture expands and population densities increase, further threats to the environment are created. Although future predictions cannot be accurately made, it is necessary to attempt to understand the possible outcomes of various theories. The accuracy of this scenario-based research is limited by the accuracy by which each scenario represents RWH, the accuracy with which ACRU represent all key processes and quality of historical data used. However, this study presents a method to determine the likely limits to up-scaling RWH in water-scarce regions, in order to safeguard the integrity of the environment for future generations

Management of multiple stressors to the lower reach of the Thukela River ecosystem.

Masters Degrees. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg.South Africa is a water scarce country which is experiencing an increase in the demand and development of water resources. The Thukela River in KwaZulu-Natal is the second largest river in South Africa and the largest in the KwaZulu-Natal Water Management Area. It is a key component of maintaining water security locally and in the rest of South Africa with several inter-basin transfer schemes. The lower reach of the Thukela River and associated estuary have been characterised as an ecologically important section of the Thukela River catchment as the river flows into the Indian Ocean and largely contributes to the formation of the Thukela Banks, a large mud bank off the coast that is also an important fisheries area. The eMandeni Stream is a tributary of the Thukela River, which has been augmented from a drainage line into a stream through the constant release of effluent from upstream industries and waste water treatment works. It is a highly impacted stream that flows into the lower reach of the Thukela River upstream of the Thukela Estuary. The aim of the study was to: 1) Review the historical and biodiversity information of the most developed areas within Thukela River catchment; 2) assess the trends in the wellbeing of the ecosystem of the lower reach of the Thukela River and 3) review a regional scale ecological risk assessment to evaluate the ecological consequences of alternative water use and protection scenarios on the water resources within the study area. The outcomes of the study indicate that the Thukela River is an important water resource for the people of South Africa and its growing economy, through the various goods and services it provides. Unfortunately, the uncontrolled use of the water resources often has a negative impact on the associated aquatic ecosystem. The aquatic ecosystem in many of the rivers’ reaches within the catchment are ecologically important and sensitive with various areas categorised as fish support and sanctuary areas. The lower reach of the Thukela River is currently in a fair state, but historical trends indicate that it has fluctuated between a fair and poor state. These results were generally lower than the results of the 2003-2004 Reserve study, and mostly did not attain the high C (fair state) recommended ecological reserve category set for this reach of the river. The eMandeni Stream is highly impacted by stressors associated with the upstream Isithebe Industrial complex, the waste water treatment works and the Sappi mill but only marginally impacts the Thukela River due to the size and dilution capacity of the Thukela River. Low flows will make the Thukela River more sensitive to these stressors and may impact on the health of the associate marine environment. The risk assessment highlighted the benefits to the Thukela River, if partially treated effluent from the Sappi mill was released into eMandeni Stream as a management option to consider. It is recommended that possible impacts to the Thukela Estuary and the offshore Thukela Bank need to be taken into consideration when any management decisions are made. The results of the risk assessment must be validated, and an updated Ecological Reserve study should be completed for the Thukela River, taking into consideration the freshwater requirements of the marine environment. Resource Quality Objective should also be established to enable decision makers to make informed decisions on the management of the Thukela system. The functionality of the UBTS fishways should be investigated as well as the impacts of the weir as a barrier for fish migration. Changes in water resource use practices is required to attain a better balance between the use and protection of the lower reach of the Thukela River and estuary

Water, Food and Agricultural Sustainability in Southern Africa

By 2050, global population will increase from 7 to more than 9 billion people, and this will increase demands on food and water systems already under pressure from climate change and over-use. Meanwhile, Africa is the continent where the largest proportion of people is currently living in poverty: an estimated one in three Africans go hungry. At the same time, the agricultural potential of Africa is enormous. Water, Food and Sustainable Agriculture in Southern Africa seeks answers to the question: ‘If centralised irrigated agriculture has failed in Africa, then what are the solutions that will increase food security to reduce poverty while sustainably managing water and conserving other environmental values?’ Food security means much more than a country producing suffiecient calories for the populace. Food security is about ensuring the most vulnerable have the means to produce, and the food is of sufficient nutritional value. Water governance is also a central concern in sustainable agriculture. With better governance, there is a high potential for poverty reduction through water interventions. Water, Food and Sustainable Agriculture in Southern Africa argues for a more decentralised approach that enables poor people to enhance their livelihoods to harvest water for agriculture using appropriate technologies

Preparing for the next generation of watershed management programmes and projects: Africa

In 2002–2003, FAO led a global review of watershed management with the aim of reviewing the past generation of watershed management programmes and laying the foundations for the next generation. The review was initiated during the International Year of Mountains in 2002 and completed during the International Year of Freshwater in 2003. This process included several activities and involved a range of agencies and experts. The Forestry Department of FAO led the review, with inputs from other FAO divisions. The objectives of the overall review were to

A framework for effective urban stream corridor management : a case study of Pietermaritzburg. Component A.

Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.Not only does urbanisation have a negative impact on the establishment of natural open space areas but also has serious implications for urban stream corridors (USCs), the focus of this study. For the purpose of this study USCs are defined as the aquatic, the riparian and the terrestrial zone. The principle objective of this study is to develop a set of policies, based on international and local experiences (Pietermaritzburg Metropolitan Open Space System) to guide municipalities in implementing effective USC management practices. The literature review lead to the identification of both the value of USCs and the threats thereto. The value of USCs includes habitat and biodiversity, purification, amenity, cultural, recreational and eductional valueas well as flood attenuation value. Conversely, threats to USCs include the impacts of urbanisation on stream hydrology, erosion, decline in water quality, loss of natural open space (NOS), alien infestation, littering and unnatural fence barriers. Urban stream corridor management is subject to specific legislation, municipal capacity and importantly, public involvement, which were also evaluated. This process lee;td to the establishment of a conceptual framework containing the critical considerations associated with USC management such as the value of USCs for nature and man, the need for public involvement, effective implementation structures supported by implementation policies and the integration of use management in urban planning. Key to the success of USC management is public involvement. As a consequence, the methodology included a survey to be undertaken with 40 urban riparian households along two streams in Pietermaritzburg to establish their opinion regarding natural open spaces (NOSs) and USC management. A reconnaissance survey of two streams was undertaken to inform the questionnaire and later debate on the issue. The results from this exercise together with the findings of the interviews with stakeholders in the USC management process will form the basis for the establishment of an USC management policy, which will be contained in a separate report (Component B)

Enhancing whole-of-river conservation

We argue for improved conservation of freshwater ecosystems at catchment or eco-regional scales by explicit assignment of values to all river sections and wetlands, recognising current disturbance, and aiming for ‘no further harm’ to the commons. The need is indicated by the global deterioration of biodiversity and ecosystem services of rivers and wetlands, increasing demands on water and land resources, and climate change. Regional pressures include multiple jurisdictions, competing demands, piecemeal management, pollution and habitat impacts. Effective resource and conservation management needs to integrate multiple uses via governance of activities of stakeholders, recognising hydrogeomorphic, water quality and ecological properties of ecosystems. Complete ecological protection is impractical amidst water-resource and land-use development, but we suggest that all river reaches and wetlands be given a conservation rating based on habitat, biodiversity and connectivity values. We present a straightforward approach to spatial conservation rating of freshwaters, using hydrogeomorphic typology and assignment of conservation values on the basis of available information and expert elicitation. We illustrate the approach by using the large Burdekin River catchment in north-eastern Australia. This approach is complementary to more spatially focused conservation prioritisation and could greatly improve management for sustainability, reduce further decline in conservation values, and facilitate rehabilitation