Can China Promote Electronic Commerce Through Law Reform? Some Preliminary Case Study Evidence

The government of the People’s Republic of China (P.R.C.) has announced its intention to make China a global leader in innovation by 2020. Many Chinese business leaders share this goal. The primary focus of this national strategy is to transform China into an exporter of high-technology products based on Chinese designs rather than merely a low cost, high volume manufacturer of products based on technology developed in other countries. This paper will examine the implications for this strategy with regard to the use of computerized management information systems by Chinese businesses, and its relationship to recent law reform efforts intended to promote greater use of electronic commerce among Chinese businesses. This paper considers three case studies of recent reforms of P.R.C. commercial law in light of their contributions to this strategy, and finds that the results so far are quite mixed. The first case study looks at a domestic standard for accounting software issued in 1989 that successfully removed obstacles to the greater use of computerized accounting systems by local businesses and promoted the growth of the domestic accounting software industry. The second and third case studies involve P.R.C. legislation based on model laws developed by United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) developed to assist legislators in trading nations to harmonize their national commercial laws in order to eliminate barriers to international trade. The second case study looks at the inclusion of general electronic commerce enabling legislation in the 1999 Contract Law which in theory removed impediments to the use of electronic commerce by Chinese businesses but in reality appears to be too abstract and general to provide much certainty to parties wishing to form contracts using electronic media. The third case study looks at the 2004 Electronic Signature Law which promotes the use of a specific type of technology for authentication. While it is too soon to know whether this law will achieve its intended objectives in China, evidence from other countries with similar laws suggests that it may not

Critical review of the e-loyalty literature: a purchase-centred framework

Over the last few years, the concept of online loyalty has been examined extensively in the literature, and it remains a topic of constant inquiry for both academics and marketing managers. The tremendous development of the Internet for both marketing and e-commerce settings, in conjunction with the growing desire of consumers to purchase online, has promoted two main outcomes: (a) increasing numbers of Business-to-Customer companies running businesses online and (b) the development of a variety of different e-loyalty research models. However, current research lacks a systematic review of the literature that provides a general conceptual framework on e-loyalty, which would help managers to understand their customers better, to take advantage of industry-related factors, and to improve their service quality. The present study is an attempt to critically synthesize results from multiple empirical studies on e-loyalty. Our findings illustrate that 62 instruments for measuring e-loyalty are currently in use, influenced predominantly by Zeithaml et al. (J Marketing. 1996;60(2):31-46) and Oliver (1997; Satisfaction: a behavioral perspective on the consumer. New York: McGraw Hill). Additionally, we propose a new general conceptual framework, which leads to antecedents dividing e-loyalty on the basis of the action of purchase into pre-purchase, during-purchase and after-purchase factors. To conclude, a number of managerial implementations are suggested in order to help marketing managers increase their customers’ e-loyalty by making crucial changes in each purchase stage

The influence of national culture on the attitude towards mobile recommender systems

This is the post-print version of the final paper published in Technological Forecasting and Social Change. The published article is available from the link below. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as peer review, editing, corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechanisms may not be reflected in this document. Changes may have been made to this work since it was submitted for publication. Copyright @ 2013 Elsevier B.V.This study aimed to identify factors that influence user attitudes towards mobile recommender systems and to examine how these factors interact with cultural values to affect attitudes towards this technology. Based on the theory of reasoned action, belief factors for mobile recommender systems are identified in three dimensions: functional, contextual, and social. Hypotheses explaining different impacts of cultural values on the factors affecting attitudes were also proposed. The research model was tested based on data collected in China, South Korea, and the United Kingdom. Findings indicate that functional and social factors have significant impacts on user attitudes towards mobile recommender systems. The relationships between belief factors and attitudes are moderated by two cultural values: collectivism and uncertainty avoidance. The theoretical and practical implications of applying theory of reasoned action and innovation diffusion theory to explain the adoption of new technologies in societies with different cultures are also discussed.National Research Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean governmen

Rural small firms' website quality in transition and market economies

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate website quality in rural firms in four countries, by using Gonzalez and Palacios's Web Assessment Index (WAI). There is an assertion in the literature that quality is lower amongst rural firms than urban firms, and lower amongst small firms than large firms. The disadvantages of lack of access to skills and economic peripherality in rural areas are attributed to this. Concurrently, there is reason to surmise that the websites of firms in transition economies may be higher quality than those in market economies. The paper aims to explore websites in distinct rural regions to investigate if variation occurs. Design/methodology/approach – To evaluate website quality the WAI was applied to a sample of 60 rural firms representing 15 each in Scotland, New Zealand, Southern Russia and Hunan Province in China. Analysis of the categorical data was performed using a variety of established methods. Findings – The WAI is of use in terms of website quality management. Additionally, comparisons between the quality of websites in the sample of small rural firms with those of large firms in previous studies support the contention that large firms generally have better quality websites. Results also illustrate that there are some differences in website quality between rural small businesses in the different locations. In particular, small rural firms in Hunan Province in China had websites of observable better quality than those elsewhere. The authors conclude that skills, knowledge and infrastructure have a bearing on the sophistication of small firms' websites. Research limitations/implications – Implications include that variation in the rural economy by region prevails as the rural economy is not, as often implied, a homogeneous concept. Practical implications – There are implications in terms of exploring the effects of regulation, culture and infrastructure on rural small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The internet may indeed contribute to rural economies, but only insofar as it is facilitated by infrastructure and access to skills, and by culture and perceived usefulness by business owners. Originality/value – The paper contributes to the understanding of rural entrepreneurship as a heterogeneous concept by comparing practice in four distinct rural regions. It also adds weight to the emerging identification of exogenous factors as being at least as much a factor in determining the use of ICT in rural SMEs as endogenous motivations, skills and resources. </jats:sec

E-Business in Ukraine: Peculiarities, Tendencies, Prospects

Introduction. It is evident that the electronic business plays a central role in the economy development, facilitating the exchange of information, goods, services, and payments. We feel very strongly that entrepreneurs who understand the role and significance of e-business and are ready to meet the sharply expanding scale of cross-border e-commerce will be the winners of tomorrow in the world market. An initial point to underline in connection with these tendencies is that business which does not give some attention to e-business and e-marketing promotion could very easily loose its place on the market. This explains the hyper attention to the e-business nowadays and as a result the necessity of studying this question. The purpose of the article is to study the characteristic features of e-business in Ukraine, to determine the latest tendencies of its development and to propose the certain steps to increase its growth. Results. Recent researches support the view that organizations can have a significant benefit of using e-business tools in their everyday operations. The article examines the benefits, problems and limitations of e-business in Ukraine. It has been distinguished that Ukraine is an attractive market for the development of e-commerce. It has a large potential for e-business and its related activities. In 2018 Ukraine ranked the 2nd place in the turnover growth of online usage among European countries. A major factor stimulating Internet growth is the drastic improvement of the telecommunications infrastructure in the country. Advantages and risks of new electronic marketing techniques were considered in the article. The main strengths of online marketing system are high quality customer service, greater reach, time saving customer loyalty, easy access to information, 24 hours access and personal contact with the customer. Considering the risks, it was admitted that e-marketing requires considerable time investment to get the results and it takes a long time to generate meaningful interactions. Conditions that should be arranged for successful e-business model implementation were determined. It was pointed out that in order to increase the development of e-business in Ukraine that certain steps such as harmonizing of essential laws and standards to the European ones, enhancing the use of web analytics tools, providing an appropriate choice of communication channels and improving administrative regulations regarding e-business procedures should be taken. In this regard, Ukrainian businesses need all the support they can get from policymakers and regulators in order to be able to grow in an increasingly competitive global market. In conclusion, in order to stay effective, to improve operational efficiency, profitability, and to strengthen their competitive position business organizations should definitely adopt e-business model. It is not enough to have high quality products or services to operate successfully in the market; productive introduction of new e-business models is vital in a computerised electronic environment. In this regard, if Ukrainian government wants its companies to fully play their role in a globalized world, it needs to create a harmonized market and a favourable environment where domestic e-business companies can flourish. Prospects for further research can be seen in the analysis of the methods of measuring the effectiveness of different e-business models

The U.S.-Singapore Free Trade Agreement: Effects After Three Years

The U.S.-Singapore Free Trade Agreement (FTA) (P.L. 108-78) went into effect on January 1, 2004. This report provides an overview of the major trade and economic effects of the FTA over the three years ending in 2006. It also includes detailed information on key provisions of the agreement and legislative action. The U.S.-Singapore FTA has provided greater access for U.S. companies, has been instrumental in increasing bilateral trade, and has provided reassurance to Singaporeans of U.S. interest in the country. As a city-state, Singapore operates as an entrepot with essentially free trade. Under the FTA, concessions dealt mainly with providing greater access for American service providers and with strengthening the business environment in areas such as the protection of intellectual property rights and access to government procurement. In 2006, the United States ran a $6.9 billion surplus in its merchandise trade with Singapore, up from$1.4 billion in 2003. U.S. exports of goods to Singapore surged by 49% from $16.6 billion in 2003 to$24.7 billion in 2006. However, even with this rapid increase in U.S. exports, the U.S. share of Singapore’s imports declined from 16% in 2003 to 13% in 2006. This suggests that factors other than the FTA, particularly the overall growth in Singapore’s imports, contributed greatly to the increase. Major U.S. exports to Singapore include machinery, electrical machinery, aircraft, optical and medical instruments, plastic, and mineral fuel oil. On the U.S. import side, a noteworthy development is that imports of pharmaceuticals from Singapore have risen dramatically from $0.09 billion in 2003 to$2.4 billion in 2006. The FTA did not lower the U.S. tariff rate for pharmaceuticals, since they already enter the United States duty free. What appears to have occurred has been the development of Singapore as a regional center for multinational pharmaceutical companies that are stepping up exports. Negotiations for the U.S.-Singapore Free Trade Agreement were launched under the Clinton Administration in December 2000. The FTA became the fifth such agreement the United States has signed and the first with an Asian country. According to the U.S. Trade Representative, the FTA broke new ground in electronic commerce, competition policy, and government procurement. It also included what the U.S. Trade Representative considers to be major advances in intellectual property protection, environment, labor, transparency, and customs cooperation. The U.S.-Singapore FTA required congressional implementation under expedited Trade Promotion Authority legislative procedures. The debate over implementation of the FTA fell between business and free trade interests who would benefit from more liberalized trade, particularly in services, and labor or antiglobalization interests who opposed more FTAs because of the overall impact of imports on jobs and the general effects of globalization on income distribution, certain jobs, and the environment. Specific provisions of the agreement also generated debate. This report will be updated as circumstances warrant

The U.S.-Singapore Free Trade Agreement: Effects After Five Years

[Excerpt] The U.S.-Singapore Free Trade Agreement (FTA) (P.L. 108-78) went into effect on January 1, 2004. This report provides an overview of the major trade and economic effects of the FTA over the three years ending in 2006. It also includes detailed information on key provisions of the agreement and legislative action. The U.S.-Singapore FTA has taken on new importance in trade policy because the United States is engaged in negotiations to join the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP). The TPP negotiations are the first major market-opening initiative of the Obama Administration. On December 14, 2009, United States Trade Representative Ron Kirk notified Congress of the intent to enter into the TPP negotiations. The objective is to shape a high-standard, broad-based regional free trade agreement with Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Chile, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam. The first round of negotiations began March 15, 2010, in Sydney, Australia. The U.S.-Singapore FTA has provided greater access for U.S. companies, has been instrumental in increasing bilateral trade, and has provided reassurance to Singaporeans of U.S. interest in the country. As a city-state, Singapore operates as an entrepot with essentially free trade. Under the FTA, concessions dealt mainly with providing greater access for American service providers and with strengthening the business environment in areas such as the protection of intellectual property rights and access to government procurement. In 2009, the United States ran a $6.6 billion surplus in its balance of merchandise trade with Singapore, up from$1.4 billion in 2003, but down from the $12.0 billion in 2008. U.S. exports of goods to Singapore surged from$16.6 billion in 2003 to a peak of $27.9 billion in 2008 before declining to$22.3 billion in 2009. Even with this rapid increase in U.S. exports to Singapore, the U.S. share of Singapore’s imports has declined from 16% in 2003 to 12% in 2009. The main reason for this is that Singapore’s overall trade is booming. Still, Singapore imports more from the United States ($28.5 billion) than from China ($26.0 billion).The U.S. balance of trade in services with Singapore declined from a surplus of $4.0 billion in 2001 to$1.2 billion 2005 but has risen to $4.2 billion in 2008. A significant increase has been in income from U.S. direct investments in Singapore. U.S. access to the Singaporean market for multinational corporations seems to have been enhanced considerably under the FTA. U.S. income from assets in Singapore rose from$6.7 billion in 2003 to $21.1 billion by 2008. On the U.S. import side (Singapore’s exports), a noteworthy development is that U.S. imports of pharmaceuticals from Singapore have risen from$0.09 billion in 2003 to $3.0 billion in 2007 before declining to$2.0 billion in 2008. Singapore has developed as a regional center for multinational pharmaceutical companies. This apparently was partly triggered by provisions in the FTA that required Singapore to strengthen its intellectual property protection. Negotiations for the U.S.-Singapore Free Trade agreement were launched under the Clinton Administration in December 2000. The FTA became the fifth such agreement the United States has signed and the first with an Asian country. This report will be updated as circumstances warrant

Electronic Commerce in Developing Countries

Electronic commerce and its related activities over the internet can be the engines that improve domestic economic well-being through liberalization of domestic services, more rapid integration into globalization of production, and leap-frogging of available technology. Electronic commerce integrates the domestic and global markets from its very inception. Negotiating on trade issues related to electronic commerce will demand self-inspection of key domestic policies, particularly in telecommunications, financial services, and distribution and delivery. Technical aspects of electronic commerce, its complexity and the characteristic of network externalities should change the way that developing countries approach the external negotiating process to depend more on cooperative effort through their regional forums (APEC, FTAA). Second, since electronic commerce is characterized by “network externalities,” developing countries should take advantage of the technical leadership coming out of the private sector in the most advanced countries (and their own private sector, even if nascent) and “draft” in behind. E-commerce is not a service, nor a good, but something that is comprised of both. In the context of WTO commitments, embracing this idea could lead to a liberalizing bias in favor of electronic delivery of goods and services as compared to delivery by a scheduled mode. Rather than view this outcome with alarm, developing countries should encourage it as a positive force that furthers the development both of electronic commerce, as well as engenders deeper liberalization and deregulation throughout the economy.

Legal Implications of E-Commerce: Basic Issues, Initiatives and Experiences in Asia

This paper gives a short overview on the major issues that have to be taken into account when formulating e-commerce-related laws and regulations and introduces two model laws relating to e-commerce and e-signatures which were created by the United Nations Commission of International trade Law. The paper has a closer look at e-commerce developments in Asia and the Pacific and gives an overview of the state of implementation of e-commerce laws. In conclusion, it discusses the e-ASEAN Reference Framework for electronic commerce legal infrastructure as example of a regional initiative to harmonize the legal basis for e-commerce.legal infrastructure, e-commerce laws, Asia, e-signature, e-ASEAN Reference Framework

The Mobile Generation: Global Transformations at the Cellular Level

Every year we see a new dimension of the ongoing Digital Revolution, which is enabling an abundance of information to move faster, cheaper, in more intelligible forms, in more directions, and across borders of every kind. The exciting new dimension on which the Aspen Institute focused its 2006 Roundtable on Information Technology was mobility, which is making the Digital Revolution ubiquitous. As of this writing, there are over two billion wireless subscribers worldwide and that number is growing rapidly. People are constantly innovating in the use of mobile technologies to allow them to be more interconnected. Almost a half century ago, Ralph Lee Smith conjured up "The Wired Nation," foretelling a world of interactive communication to and from the home that seems commonplace in developed countries today. Now we have a "Wireless World" of communications potentially connecting two billion people to each other with interactive personal communications devices. Widespead adoption of wireless handsets, the increasing use of wireless internet, and the new, on-the-go content that characterizes the new generation of users are changing behaviors in social, political and economic spheres. The devices are easy to use, pervasive and personal. The affordable cell phone has the potential to break down the barriers of poverty and accessibility previously posed by other communications devices. An entire generation that is dependant on ubiquitous mobile technologies is changing the way it works, plays and thinks. Businesses, governments, educational institutions, religious and other organizations in turn are adapting to reach out to this mobile generation via wireless technologies -- from SMS-enabled vending machines in Finland to tech-savvy priests in India willing to conduct prayers transmitted via cell phones. Cellular devices are providing developing economies with opportunities unlike any others previously available. By opening the lines of communication, previously disenfranchised groups can have access to information relating to markets, economic opportunities, jobs, and weather to name just a few. When poor village farmers from Bangladesh can auction their crops on a craigslist-type service over the mobile phone, or government officials gain instantaneous information on contagious diseases via text message, the miracles of mobile connectivity move us from luxury to necessity. And we are only in the early stages of what the mobile electronic communications will mean for mankind. We are now "The Mobile Generation." Aspen Institute Roundtable on Information Technology. To explore the implications of these phenomena, the Aspen Institute Communications and Society Program convened 27 leaders from business, academia, government and the non-profit sector to engage in three days of dialogue on related topics. Some are experts in information and communications technologies, others are leaders in the broader society affected by these innovations. Together, they examined the profound changes ahead as a result of the convergence of wireless technologies and the Internet. In the following report of the Roundtable meeting held August 1-4, 2006, J. D. Lasica, author of Darknet and co-founder of Ourmedia.org, deftly sets up, contextualizes, and captures the dialogue on the impact of the new mobility on economic models for businesses and governments, social services, economic development, and personal identity