Trichomonas galllinae infection in European turtle doves Streptopelia turtur in Africa and potential for transmission among co-occurring African columbiformes

Trichomonas gallinae is an emerging avian pathogen in the UK and across Europe, leading to population declines in songbirds (especially greenfinches Carduelis chloris) where prevalence is high (Robinson et al., 2010). The parasite is present worldwide, and elsewhere it is typically a pathogen of columbiformes, where it can have population limiting effects (Bunbury et al., 2008). Recent work has shown a high prevalence in UK columbiformes, with the highest rates of infection (86%) in the migratory European Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur (Lennon et al., 2013). Infected individuals do not necessarily exhibit clinical signs, and carriers without clinical signs may transfer disease organisms between sites during migration (e.g. Rappole et al., 2000) and exhibit reduced survival (Bunbury et al., 2008). European Turtle Doves breeding in the UK are thought to have a non-breeding range spanning much of the Sahel in West Africa, coinciding with the range of several species of Afro-tropical columbids. T. gallinae may be transmitted between infected individuals at shared food and water sources, with this being of particular concern at those sites utilised by large numbers of birds. Such events may be frequent in the Sahel, where birds congregate at scarce water sources in an otherwise arid environment. This leads to concerns that intra- and interspecies transmission rates may be high during the non-breeding period

The ecology and conservation biology of Lilian's lovebird Agapornis lilianae in Malawi.

Ph. D. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg 2014.Despite their popularity, parrots are the world’s most threatened birds. Lovebirds (Agapornis) are very popular pet and aviary birds and as ecologically specialised species in the wild, they are also among the most threatened group of birds. Lilian’s lovebird Agapornis lilianae is a mopane Colophospermum mopane woodland specialist. This study represents the first detailed investigation of the species ecology in the wild. The current distribution of Lilian’s lovebird in Malawi was explored. Furthermore, the extent of the largest resident population in Liwonde National Park (LNP) was investigated. Five new atlas records are reported; three within 40-56 km of the LNP population, and two were over 150 km south and north of LNP respectively. One of them in Kasungu National Park is about 66 km from the Lilian’s lovebird population in Luangwa Valley, Zambia. Lilian’s lovebirds occurred throughout LNP with the highest abundance in the central section. Seasonal movements to areas outside the park were recorded. A variety of vegetation types were used by the lovebirds. The strongest vegetation associations were with seasonally wet grasslands and not mopane woodlands. The abundance and density of the Lilian’s lovebird in LNP was investigated. The highest density estimates of 17 ± 4.8 lovebirds km-2 were recorded in LNP’s mopane woodland. However, number of observations per transect differed significantly. Waterhole counts had the lowest estimates (10 ± 3.5 lovebirds). Flyway counts had the intermediate estimate (14 ± 3.0 lovebirds). The total population of Lilian’s lovebirds in LNP is therefore estimated to be about 4000 individuals. The use of line transect counts at the end of the rainy season is recommended for continued monitoring of Lilian’s lovebirds abundance in LNP. Lilian’s lovebird is a secondary cavity user adapted to mopane woodlands. We investigated its roost characteristics and roosting behaviour. We quantified tree and roost site variables for roost and non-roost trees. Roosting behaviour was observed during the morning and late afternoon. Lilian’s lovebirds’ roosts were located in large tall mopane trees with a mean diameter at breast height (dbh) of 57.4 ± 1.64 m, a mean height of 16.5 ± 0.42 m, and with a mean cavity height of 10.0 ± 0.05 m. All roosts were located in mopane trees within mopane woodland with 10 – 50 % tree cover. Non-roost areas had significantly smaller trees (mean dbh = 39.4 ± 1.72 m) and were located significantly closer together. Human disturbance was low in both areas, however, evidence of elephant Loxodonta africana browsing was high with large areas of stunted mopane woodland recorded in non-roost areas. We recommend that the current LNP vegetation map be updated to highlight areas of stunted mopane woodland unsuitable for Lilian’s lovebird roosts. The impact of elephant browsing on large mopane trees should be assessed to understand its impact on the availability of suitable cavities for lovebirds and other tree cavity-reliant vertebrate species. Investigations into the diet and foraging behaviour of the Lilian’s lovebird revealed they fed on 30 different plant species. These occurred in six habitat types, two of which were outside LNP (agriculture fields and dambos). In the wet season majority of Lilian’s lovebirds (23 %) foraged in dambo areas, whilst in the dry season (August – November) the lovebirds mainly foraged in grasslands with tree cover (18 %). In mopane woodland feeding flock sizes differed significantly between the wet (mean = 20 ± 1.0 lovebirds) and dry season (mean = 34 ± 2.3 lovebirds). Grass seeds were their main food source from December to June. Lilian’s lovebirds diet was more diverse from July to November and included leaves, leaf buds, fruits, fruit seeds and herbs. Grass seeds fed on during the wet season had a high protein and energy content. The Lilian’s lovebirds foraging habitat is protected within LNP, however, early burning in areas outside the park needs to be monitored. The breeding biology of the Lilian’s lovebird was investigated. Data were collected through a combination of direct observations and infrared camera traps during three breeding seasons. Results show large similarities with the black-cheeked lovebird A. nigrigens in Zambia. The breeding season was from February to May. Lilian’s lovebirds nested mainly in south-east oriented deep cavities (≥ 1 m) located in large mopane trees (mean dbh = 57.6 ± 2.35 cm). Nests were located in loose clusters in the areas they roosted (mean distance to nearest nest = 24.2 m). Nest fidelity was observed. Clutch size ranged from 3 – 6 eggs, (mean 5.0 ± 0.22). We recorded 49 % hatching success and 69 % fledging success. Results suggest a low breeding success mainly due to the loss of eggs to predation. The use of poison to kill wildlife is a threat to biodiversity. In LNP illegal hunters poison naturally occurring waterholes to catch mammals and birds for food. Lilian’s lovebirds are among the victims at these poisoned waterholes. Lilian’s lovebird population in LNP represents about 20 % of the global population. The drinking habits of the Lilian’s lovebird, the availability of natural waterholes and the occurrence of poisoning incidents in LNP were investigated. Results showed Lilian’s lovebirds congregate at waterholes in the dry season with flock sizes ranging from 1 to 100 individuals. Significantly larger flock sizes were seen in the dry season compared with the wet season. The number of poisoning incidents/year ranged from 1 to 8. The dry season had the highest numbers of poisoning incidents. Lilian’s lovebirds were killed at approximately four poisoning incidents each year between 2000 and 2012. The number of lovebirds found dead at a poisoned pool ranged from 5 to 50 individuals. A list of other species affected by the poisoning is provided. There is need for increased efforts in preventing this lethal activity in the park. Avian diseases are considered to be one of the key threats to bird conservation. Psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) is the most significant infectious disease in psittacines. It is caused by the beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) and currently has no cure. PBFD threatens the survival of wild populations of endangered parrots in Africa. The occurrence of BFDV was investigated in wild populations of Lilian’s lovebird. In addition, evidence of blood parasites presence was also investigated to determine their general health. All samples (n = 48) tested negative for BFDV. Blood parasites were observed in 13 of the 48 samples (27 %). Investigation of virus occurrence in other known populations of the species is recommended to assess the conservation risk faced. Lilian’s lovebirds (n = 55) were mist-netted and ringed in LNP. Measurements showed that females were significantly larger than males. About 50 % of the birds ringed in October were half way through their primary moult indicating that moulting starts in earlier months possibly just after the breeding season in April. This study highlights three of the key threats (waterhole poisoning, habitat loss and predation) to the conservation of Lilian’s lovebirds in LNP and provides proposed actions to address these threats

Molecular epidemiology of Trichomonas gallinae in European Turtle Doves (Streptopelia turtur)

Disease is usually ignored as a potential driver of species decline. This is concerning since disease could have a greater impact on a species as it becomes vulnerable to other extinction risks. This thesis investigated Trichomonas gallinae infection in the UK’s fastest declining farmland bird, the European Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur. It employed molecular techniques to acquire data on parasite prevalence and identify strains, and trialled the application of Next Generation Sequencing technology to disease surveillance. Overall, 50 adult Turtle Dove samples from 2011-2015 were analysed and temporal variation in strain frequency was revealed. A degree of population structure in T. gallinae infecting different Turtle Dove populations (France 2014, n=40; Senegal, n=28) was apparent, along with some evidence of wide-ranging parasite dispersal, indirectly through their host. The potential risk of shared resources as a transmission route of T. gallinae was investigated with 226 food and 117 water samples screened for its presence. Evidence suggested T. gallinae was regularly present in both food and water resources. This has important implications for supplementary feeding being a conservation management tool. The reservoir of T. gallinae in the UK was reviewed by sampling potential hosts of Columbidae (n=166), Galliformes (n=13) and Passeriformes (n=90). The detection of strains other than the finch epidemic strain in free-ranging Passerines revealed a greater level of genetic heterogeneity than previously shown in other studies. There were no significant associations between T. gallinae strain infection or coinfection with haemosporidians and measures of reproduction, body condition or post-fledging survival in Turtle Doves however, sample sizes were small. Overall, this study increases our understanding of the epidemiology of T. gallinae both in the wider bird population and a species of Vulnerable conservation status. It demonstrates how T. gallinae infecting wild birds is a useful model for investigating aspects of host- parasite ecology and encourages further research with this system

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Groundnuts

One of the impor tant functions of an international research institute is the holding of workshops, conferences, and symposia where delegates from many parts of the wor l d can meet together to discuss research problems and progress. ICRISAT has hosted many such workshops, but this is the first one that has been held solely for groundnuts. It was an appropriate t ime to hold such a meeting, as our program at ICRISAT Center is almost ful l y staffed and we are preparing to place staff at research stations in Africa. The research program of ICRISAT presented at the Groundnut Workshop and the deliberations and discussions thereon clearly indicate that the Institute's main lines of research, aimed at overcoming major yield-reducingconstraints, are appropriate and welcome. One area that undoubtedl y needs early and mor e concentrated attention is drought resistance. It is alarming to hear of the evastation that has affected groundnut production and reduced the cultivated area, particularly in the drier zones of West Africa. We are pleased that the groundnut physiology program is now under way, and we look forwar d to fruitful cooperation wi t h our colleagues in national programs. It is also pleasing to find that the Indian groundnut research program is being strengthened and that a new national center is being form ed in the high production area of Gujarat State. This is very appropriate because of the large deficit of vegetable oils in India, which in turn means that precious foreign exchange has to be spent on impor t s despite India being the largest groundnut producer in the wor ld. There is undoubtedl y also a pressing need in many other parts of the wor ld to increase groundnut production and initiate more research. We believe that ICRISAT can help. On behalf of ICRISAT I woul d like to thank all the delegates, many of wh om travelled far to Hyderabad, for making this workshop a success