Structural analyses in the study of behavior: From rodents to non-human primates

The term "structure" indicates a set of components that, in relation to each other, shape an organic complex. Such a complex takes on essential connotations of functionally unitary entity resulting from the mutual relationships of its constituent elements. In a broader sense, we can use the word "structure" to define the set of relationships among the elements of an emergent system that is not determined by the mere algebraic sum of these elements, but by the interdependence relationships of these components from which the function of the entire structure itself derives. The behavior of an integrated living being can be described in structural terms via an ethogram, defined as an itemized list of behavioral units. Akin to an architectural structure, a behavioral structure arises from the reciprocal relationships that the individual units of behavior establish. Like an architectural structure, the function of the resulting behaving complex emerges from the relationships of the parts. Hence, studying behavior in its wholeness necessitates not only the identification of its constitutive units in their autarchic individuality, but also, and importantly, some understanding of their relationships. This paper aimed to critically review different methods to study behavior in structural terms. First, we emphasized the utilization of T-pattern analysis, i.e., one of the most effective and reliable tools to provide structural information on behavior. Second, we discussed the application of other methodological approaches that are based on the analysis of transition matrices, such as hierarchical clustering, stochastic analyses, and adjusted residuals. Unlike T-pattern analysis, these methods allow researchers to explore behavioral structure beyond its temporal characteristics and through other relational constraints. After an overview of how these methods are used in the study of animal behavior, from rodents to non-human primates, we discussed the specificities, advantages and challenges of each approach. This paper could represent a useful background for all scientists who intend to study behavior both quantitatively and structurally, that is in terms of the reciprocal relationships that the various units of a given behavioral repertoire normally weave together

Structural analyses in the study of behavior : From rodents to non-human primates

Ajuts: J-BL's research was funded by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC, Discovery Grant #: 2015-06034 to J-BL). MC, SA, and GC's research was funded by a grant from the University of Palermo, Italy.The term " structure " indicates a set of components that, in relation to each other, shape an organic complex. Such a complex takes on essential connotations of functionally unitary entity resulting from the mutual relationships of its constituent elements. In a broader sense, we can use the word " structure " to define the set of relationships among the elements of an emergent system that is not determined by the mere algebraic sum of these elements, but by the interdependence relationships of these components from which the function of the entire structure itself derives. The behavior of an integrated living being can be described in structural terms via an ethogram, defined as an itemized list of behavioral units. Akin to an architectural structure, a behavioral structure arises from the reciprocal relationships that the individual units of behavior establish. Like an architectural structure, the function of the resulting behaving complex emerges from the relationships of the parts. Hence, studying behavior in its wholeness necessitates not only the identification of its constitutive units in their autarchic individuality, but also, and importantly, some understanding of their relationships. This paper aimed to critically review different methods to study behavior in structural terms. First, we emphasized the utilization of T-pattern analysis, i.e., one of the most effective and reliable tools to provide structural information on behavior. Second, we discussed the application of other methodological approaches that are based on the analysis of transition matrices, such as hierarchical clustering, stochastic analyses, and adjusted residuals. Unlike T-pattern analysis, these methods allow researchers to explore behavioral structure beyond its temporal characteristics and through other relational constraints. After an overview of how these methods are used in the study of animal behavior, from rodents to non-human primates, we discussed the specificities, advantages and challenges of each approach. This paper could represent a useful background for all scientists who intend to study behavior both quantitatively and structurally, that is in terms of the reciprocal relationships that the various units of a given behavioral repertoire normally weave together

On the proximate links between object play and tool use in the context of stone handling behavior in Balinese long-tailed macaques

Several theories on the origins and evolution of instrumental object-assisted actions hold that object play facilitates tool use, through enhanced perception of an object’s properties and potential for manipulation. However, the data-based findings actually connecting these activities are conflicting. In this thesis, I explored the links between object play and tool use at a proximate level, that is by looking at their mechanisms and structural differences. Using a combination of observational and experimental methods, I studied a culturally maintained form of object play named stone handling (SH) performed by Balinese long-tailed macaques. First, I assessed inter-individual variation and intra-individual consistency in the expression of SH behavior, and whether the physical properties of the objects being manipulated (i.e., stone size) affected an individual’s expression of SH activity. Second, I tested whether SH in this population has the exaptive potential to turn into tool use, spontaneously in the sexual domain, as a form of self-directed tool-assisted masturbation, and via experimental induction in the foraging domain, as extractive tool-assisted foraging techniques to open novel food-baited puzzle boxes. Overall, my findings demonstrate that, due to the intrinsic characteristics of play behavior, such as its combinatorial flexibility, SH may be exapted into tool use under certain motivational domains, and qualitative and quantitative features of playful object manipulation, that is the types and duration of different actions, covary with the expression of instrumental object-assisted solutions. Future investigations aiming to explore the relationship between object play and tool use should focus on structural components of these two activities.School of Graduate Studies at the University of Lethbridge. Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC, Discovery Grants: 2015-06034, to Jean-Baptiste Leca)