Robust Management, Risk and the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries

Biodiversity has not been a prominent consideration in conventional fishery management, even though biological concerns and the concept of "sustainability" are long-established in fisheries. This is because traditionally, the focus of management has been on determining the harvest of fish that can be taken as a "sustainable yield" and then restricting the catch of fish to within this limit. Typically missing from the analysis have been (1) interactions of fishing with the broader marine ecosystem, and (2) interactions of the fishery with the broader coastal economy and coastal communities. Accordingly, there is a need to move toward a "big picture" perspective, a "Fishery System Approach", in which fisheries are understood and managed in the context of marine ecosystems and coastal human systems, thereby addressing the needs of both biodiversity conservation and integrated management of multiple ocean uses. This paper elaborates on these themes, exploring the duality of the Ecosystem Approach and the Livelihood Approach as means to move toward sustainable, resilient fishery systems, ones in which biodiversity values can be more fully included

System properties determine food security and biodiversity outcomes at landscape scale: a case study from West Flores, Indonesia

The food-biodiversity nexus is a concept that defines and characterizes the complex interactions between agricultural systems and biodiversity conservation. Here we use a social-ecological systems approach that combines fuzzy cognitive mapping and graph theoretic analyses to uncover system properties that determine food security and biodiversity outcomes at a landscape scale. We studied a rice-based agricultural landscape system situated in Mbeliling district of West Flores, Indonesia. A graphical representation of the Mbeliling district food-biodiversity nexus was created by local experts. The representation revealed system properties that help reconcile the trade-offs between food security and biodiversity conservation. The graph represented a diverse set of food security and biodiversity nodes, and showed that there is not a simple dichotomy between 'production and protection'. The analysis captured greater complexity than popular academic concepts such as land sparing-land sharing or sustainable intensification. Three major themes emerged from the graph. We found distinct clusters of factors influencing biodiversity and food security. We named these sources of influence (1) Modernisation and sustainable farming; (2) Knowledge and management; and (3) Governance and processes. Component 2 was the most representative of emergent system properties that contribute positively to managing a sustainable food-biodiversity nexus in the Mbeliling landscape. The key determinants of outcomes were: improving agronomic practices, diversifying production, maintaining forest cover and connectivity, and using knowledge and natural resource management processes to mitigate the main drivers of change. Our approach highlights the complexities in the food-biodiversity nexus, and could have wide application in other locations

Rethinking Biodiversity Conservation Effectiveness and Evaluation in the National Protected Areas Systems of Tropical Islands: The Case of Jamaica and the Dominican Republic

Island conservation theory and practice with regard to conservation of tropical terrestrial biodiversity in protected areas systems has yet to be adequately addressed in conservation literature. This knowledge gap is identified as a key contributor to the adoption of scientific principles for in situ biodiversity conservation, and “universal” conservation and protected area management paradigms that are unsuitable for island contexts and geographical scale. The underlying assumption is that “universal” concepts of biodiversity conservation, protected areas management, and evaluation of their effectiveness are transferable to the ecological and socio-economic contexts of tropical islands. The expected outcome of this knowledge transfer is that protected areas managers on tropical islands should be able to effectively conserve biodiversity. The risk of evaluation recommendations proposing unrealistic biodiversity conservation outcomes for protected areas management on tropical islands points to the question of how to assess conservation effectiveness in the tropical island geographic scale and context. Keeping these considerations in mind, a “two-case” case study was designed to provide a new perspective on the concept of effective biodiversity conservation and its evaluation with respect to tropical islands. The first goal was to provide empirical and theoretical knowledge of the critical components of effective terrestrial biodiversity conservation in national protected areas systems and the second goal was to abstract this knowledge into an island-specific framework for effective biodiversity conservation that can be used to assess the conservation outcomes of protected areas management. The conservation effectiveness framework is a representation of the critical components of effective biodiversity conservation and their relationships. Its development was not dependent on understanding every characteristic and causal process behind a national protected areas system. Rather, the focus was on the system components whose presence or absence dramatically affected conservation effectiveness. Four major categories of criteria (i.e. goals/objectives, biophysical outcomes, management institutions and governance) representing effective biodiversity conservation were identified from biogeographical and ecological theories, conservation paradigms for biodiversity, the management paradigms for protected areas and documented protected area experiences related to in situ biodiversity conservation in tropical oceanic islands. Taking a contextual, holistic view of the social phenomenon, biodiversity conservation in protected areas systems, a theoretical framework for biodiversity conservation effectiveness in the terrestrial protected areas system of a tropical island was constructed from the identified criteria. Specific propositions of the framework are that the achievement of conservation outcomes is dependent on: Critical relationships between concepts of biodiversity conservation, conservation goals and objectives, the associated management institutions and governance of a protected areas system. Ecological and socio-economic contexts representative of tropical islands. Critical linkages between conservation effectiveness at the system and site levels of protected areas management. The case study, located in Jamaica and the Dominican Republic, was used to a) validate and revise the theoretically-derived framework for achievement of biodiversity conservation in protected areas system on tropical islands and b) explain how the framework’s criteria and indicators can be used to assess conservation effectiveness. Jamaica presented a smaller fragmented landscape with concentrations of terrestrial biodiversity; a knowledge base inclusive of conservation biology yet underexposed to the science of protected areas management; adoption of “universal” concepts of biodiversity, protected area, conservation networks and management effectiveness; and a complex protected areas management structure due to overlapping jurisdictions. The Dominican Republic presented a much larger fragmented landscape with concentrations of terrestrial biodiversity; a knowledge base under-exposed to both conservation biology and the science of protected areas management; adoption of “universal” concepts of biodiversity, protected area, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) system of protected areas categories and conservation networks; and a centralized protected areas management structure. The study sites in Jamaica included the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park, Portland Bight Protected Area and Mason River Protected Area with sizes ranging from 495.2 km2 to 0.49 km2. The study sites in the Dominican Republic included the Sierra Bahoruco National Park and Laguna Cabral Wildlife Refuge with sizes ranging from 1,126 km2 to 65 km2. The case study methodology, data collection and analysis of this research were oriented towards a qualitative approach. The methodology included a participatory aspect where the inputs of protected area and conservation experts as well as representatives from protected area communities were sought. The research methods for each of the two islands included a review and content analysis of island literatures, biophysical data and information extraction, a Delphi process, community workshops and interviews. Methodological triangulation was used to isolate the critical components of effective biodiversity conservation in the contexts of the case study locations and to reconstruct a concept of effective biodiversity conservation for tropical islands. Data analysis allowed for causal explanations of conservation outcomes and suggestions for improvement in the management of national protected area systems. The research findings for both Jamaica and the Dominican Republic indicate that the transferability of “universal” concepts on in situ biodiversity conservation to tropical islands is dependent on the ecological and socio-economic contexts of the islands. The contemporary design of a protected areas system based on ecological representation in conservation networks is not facilitated by the small, highly fragmented landscapes such as that mapped for Jamaica, with restricted distribution ranges for several island species. Traditional conservation values and practices have focused conservation planning on select species and forest ecosystems in both study locations rather than on as wide a range of biodiversity as is practically possible. Conceptual challenges with and a narrow local knowledge base for biodiversity conservation are masked by the assumptions of a “universal” perspective for in situ biodiversity conservation. Consequently, there have been difficulties with application of the IUCN categories in the Dominican Republic and limited identification of conservation outcomes in both study locations. Successful biodiversity conservation is limited to increasing population numbers for the Jamaican Iguana and maintaining the variety of types of forest in both study locations. The island-sensitive framework that has been developed through this research presents another perspective on biodiversity conservation by: Highlighting the critical biogeographical and ecological features, for protected areas design and conservation outcomes that would perpetuate tropical island biodiversity Pointing out the need for more attention to the socio-economic aspects of biodiversity protection and use in the planning and evaluation of biodiversity conservation Establishing the importance of harmonizing management of a PAS at national level with management of individual protected sites The final framework for biodiversity conservation effectiveness in the terrestrial protected areas system of a tropical island is island-sensitive with respect to its biogeographical criteria. However, a claim of island-specificity couid not be made for the other criteria which have universal applicability. Recommendations for in situ biodiversity conservation on tropical islands in general, and in particular to Jamaica and the Dominican Republic, are directed to the academic community, conservation educators, protected area managers and policy makers, and international environment and development agencies. Major points include the development and testing of the evaluation framework by conservation scientists over a wider variety of ecological and socio-economic contexts on tropical islands, building the capacity for educating and training protected areas and conservation scientists and practitioners, implementing a policy of periodically evaluating biodiversity conservation outcomes, coordination of conservation planning, enforcement and financing at both the system and site levels of protected areas management, and encouraging the application of island-sensitive evaluation criteria in internationally funded conservation evaluations

Building systems-based scenario narratives for novel biodiversity futures in an agricultural landscape

Improving biodiversity futures requires a systems-based appreciation of the dynamic human and bio-physical interactions shaping landscapes. By combining a structured approach to identifying key driversof change on biodiversity with a collaborative approach to scenario planning, biodiversity planners andmanagers can work with stakeholders to identify a range of possible futures and explore their impli-cations. This paper presents an approach to developing scenario narratives constructed against keydrivers of change identified through a social–ecological systems analysis. The approach facilitated theintegration of stakeholder and expert input to inform system dynamics affecting biodiversity outcomes,helping to direct and discipline the collective imagination, and to challenge assumptions and reveal newopportunities and strategies. Examples are provided to show how conventional notions about preser-ving biodiversity remnants “as is” were not a good fit for the diverse range of futures imagined, and thatrestoration ecology would have to expand to incorporate ideas of landscape fluidity and novel ecosys-tems. Aspects of the scenario narratives highlighted the need for new conservation strategies for theendangered native grassland ecological community within the Tasmanian Midlands case study, and are-focusing on new locations across that landscape

Combined Use of Systematic Conservation Planning, Species Distribution Modelling, and Connectivity Analysis Reveals Severe Conservation gaps in a Megadiverse Country (Peru)

Conservation planning is crucial for megadiverse countries where biodiversity is coupled with incomplete reserve systems and limited resources to invest in conservation. Using Peru as an example of a megadiverse country, we asked whether the national system of protected areas satisfies biodiversity conservation needs. Further, to complement the existing reserve system, we identified and prioritized potential conservation areas using a combination of species distribution modeling, conservation planning and connectivity analysis. Based on a set of 2,869 species, including mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, butterflies, and plants, we used species distribution models to represent species' geographic ranges to reduce the effect of biased sampling and partial knowledge about species' distributions. A site-selection algorithm then searched for efficient and complementary proposals, based on the above distributions, for a more representative system of protection. Finally, we incorporated connectivity among areas in an innovative post-hoc analysis to prioritize those areas maximizing connectivity within the system. Our results highlight severe conservation gaps in the Coastal and Andean regions, and we propose several areas, which are not currently covered by the existing network of protected areas. Our approach helps to find areas that contribute to creating a more representative, connected and efficient network.CRUE-CEPYME grants with the cooperation of ATECMA funded JF to perform this study. JM is currently supported by grant CGL2012-38624-C02-02 of the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of Spain. The involvement of JL and EB was supported by Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript

Modelling biodiversity trends in the montado (wood pasture) landscapes of the Alentejo, Portugal

Abstract Context Montados are dynamic agroforestry systems of southern Portugal, with high economic and ecological values. Changes in land use and cover have important implications for landscape-level biodiversity and its conservation. Objectives Our objectives were to evaluate the biodiversity values and trends in a montado system in the Alentejo, Portugal so as to inform landscape level conservation approaches. In doing so, we aimed to develop a replicable and robust approach drawing together field observation, expert opinion, and remote sensing to produce predictions relevant to land management planning. Methods Field sampling and subsequent analysis of data on the birds, butterflies and plants in eight distinct land covers allowed the identification of two principal habitat groupings of importance: ‘montado mosaic’ and ‘shrubland’. Morphological spatial pattern analysis was performed on Landsat-derived GIS habitat layers for 1984 and 2009, generating maps and statistics for change in the different landscape functional classes. In addition, we demonstrated how the modelling of ecotones between open and closed biomes can identify the preferred hunting grounds of the threatened Iberian lynx and black vulture, flagship species whose conservation provides benefits to the area’s wider biodiversity values. Results Total and core area of montado mosaics and shrubland increased over the 25 year period, whilst the amount of habitat connectivity declined in the case of shrubland. Considerable local variation in these trends highlighted targetable areas for conservation action (e.g. through agri-environment spending). Conclusions A rapid and robust approach was demonstrated, with potentially wider utility for biodiversity assessment and planning

Using historical woodland creation to construct a long-term, large-scale natural experiment: The WrEN project

Natural experiments have been proposed as a way of complementing manipulative experiments to improve ecological understanding and guide management. There is a pressing need for evidence from such studies to inform a shift to landscape-scale conservation, including the design of ecological networks. Although this shift has been widely embraced by conservation communities worldwide, the empirical evidence is limited and equivocal, and may be limiting effective conservation. We present principles for well-designed natural experiments to inform landscape-scale conservation and outline how they are being applied in the WrEN project, which is studying the effects of 160years of woodland creation on biodiversity in UK landscapes. We describe the study areas and outline the systematic process used to select suitable historical woodland creation sites based on key site- and landscape-scale variables – including size, age, and proximity to other woodland. We present the results of an analysis to explore variation in these variables across sites to test their suitability as a basis for a natural experiment. Our results confirm that this landscape satisfies the principles we have identified and provides an ideal study system for a long-term, large-scale natural experiment to explore how woodland biodiversity is affected by different site and landscape attributes. The WrEN sites are now being surveyed for a wide selection of species that are likely to respond differently to site- and landscape-scale attributes and at different spatial and temporal scales. The results from WrEN will help develop detailed recommendations to guide landscape-scale conservation, including the design of ecological networks. We also believe that the approach presented demonstrates the wider utility of well-designed natural experiments to improve our understanding of ecological systems and inform policy and practice

The socio-ecological impacts of structural changes in the transhumance system of the mountainous area of Nepal

Traditional social-ecological systems such as pastoralism can be subject to major and rapid changes, resulting in adverse social, economic, cultural and ecological impacts. Transhumance, a type of pastoralism based on seasonal and recurring movement of livestock has been undergoing unprecedented changes. In the high Himalayas, transhumance is a threatened system due to social-economic and cultural transformations brought by globalisation, shifts from subsistence agriculture (e.g. grazing) to multi-functional land use (e.g. tourism and biodiversity conservation), conservation policies and practices, and climate change. Understanding the nature, extent and impacts of these changes will inform both policy and practice. However, knowledge of the current status of the transhumance system and its socio-economic, cultural and ecological significances is very limited. This study on the transhumance system conducted in or near three mountainous protected areas of Nepal Himalayas addresses the knowledge gap. The study integrated both social and ecological components of transhumance systems using a system thinking approach. The study was multi-disciplinary in nature and applied mixed methods using a range of tools and techniques for data collection and analysis. Socio-economic data were collected by household surveys, focus group discussion, informal interviews and key informants interviews. The ecological data were collected from the rangelands sites using horizontal transects of grazed areas to collect data on grazing intensity, species richness and other environmental variables. The study revealed that the transhumance system is a major source of household income of herders and is also embedded with culture and traditions. The results did not support the notion that transhumance grazing is necessarily detrimental to biodiversity. Though the species richness (α-diversity) was low and nitrophilous and grazing tolerant plants were abundant nearer to the goths (semi-permanent stopping and camping points), the highest species richness and occurrence of rare species at mid and further distances from goths within 800 m transects suggest that adverse impacts were confined to very limited areas near goths. In fact, the results indicate that light or medium grazing intensity promotes species richness and composition in other areas. Globalisation, particularly tourism and labour migration, state conservation policies nd practices and climate change were the major drivers of change to the transhumance system. However, the intensity of pressures from those drivers on the systems varied across sites. Tourism and labour migration created shortage of labour for transhumance systems and reduced local economic dependency on such systems. The conservation programs run by government agencies produced unintended outcomes in the transhumance system. It was found that the operational freedom and flexibility of transhumant herders were reduced by conservation policies and programs creating negative attitude and perceptions among herders towards different schemes of conservation. The trends of key climatic variables (temperature and precipitation) and perceived changes in different biophysical indicators by herders indicated that the climate change has emerged as an additional threat and has the potential to impact different components of transhumance systems (rangelands, livestock and herders). Herders perceived that fewer households were involved in the transhumance system, herd sizes had decreased, movement patterns have been changed, dependency on transhumance was reduced and the involvement of younger generations in transhumance systems has declined. These changes can decouple social and ecological subsystems that can induce adverse social-ecological impacts. The likely social impacts are decreased livelihood options, reduced agricultural production, loss of customary lifestyle and traditional knowledge and culture. The potential ecological impacts from the loss of transhumance systems can be on biodiversity, vegetation and land use, and ecosystem functions and services. Complete collapse of the transhumance system could be detrimental, however, some level of transhumance could be desirable. How herders and transhumance systems respond to multiple change pressures will depend on how future policy decisions will support transhumance and whether transhumance systems appear beneficial and attractive compared to other available livelihood options. The incentives to motivate herders by creating a lucrative environment for doing transhumance such as by introducing value addition technologies, certifying and levelling transhumance products, and integrating with alternate livelihood options can encourage some families to continue transhumance

Consumer Power to Change the Food System? A Critical Reading of Food Labels as Governance Spaces: The Case of Acai Berry Superfoods

This article argues that the marketing claims on food labels are a governance space worthy of critical examination. We use a case study of superfood açaí berry products to illustrate how marketing claims on food labels encapsulate dominant neoliberal constructions of global food systems. These marketing claims implicitly promise that by making careful choices consumers can resist and redress the ravages of unbridled global capitalism. Food labels suggest that consumers can use market signals to simultaneously govern our own selves and the market to ensure sustainable, fair, and healthy consumption. In response, this article develops, justifies and applies a socio-legal approach to researching food chain governance which uses the food label as its unit of analysis and traces from the micro level of what the everyday consumer is exposed to on a food label to the broader governance processes that the food label both symbolizes and effects. We demonstrate our approach through a “label and chain governance analysis” of açaí berry marketing claims to deconstruct both the regulatory governance of the chain behind the food choices available to the consumer evident from the label and the way in which labels seek to govern consumer choices. Our analysis unpacks the nutritionist, primitivist undertones to the health claims made on these products, the neo-colonial and racist dimensions in their claims regarding fair trade and rural socio-economic development, and, the use of green-washing claims about biodiversity conservation and ecological sustainability. Through our application of this approach to the case study of açaí berry product labels, we show how food labels can legitimize the market-based governance of globalized food chains and misleadingly suggest that capitalist production can be adequately restrained by self-regulation, market-based governance and reflexive consumer choices alone. We conclude by suggesting the need for both greater deconstruction of the governance assumptions behind food labels and to possibilities for collective, public interest oriented regulatory governance of both labelling and the food system

The national ecological network and a land morphology model. An application to Portugal

Doutoramento em Arquitetura Paisagista - Instituto Superior de AgronomiaOne of the most complex issues that modern society is facing is landscape transformation, its fragmentation and ecological simplification, resulting in loss of biodiversity and a decline in ecosystems’ quality. Recently, the concept and establishment of Ecological Networks (EN) have been seen as a solution towards nature conservation strategies targeting biodiversity and ecological connectivity, (re)focusing on the ecosystem approach and the “continuum naturale”. The research in this dissertation aims to clarify the potential of EN in the context of landscape planning and its importance and function within the Green Infrastructure (GI) concept, emerging from EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020, as a fundamental strategically connected infrastructure of abiotic and biotic systems underlying the provision of multiple functions valuable to society. It also addresses the lack of mapping at the national level of ecological systems. The main research objectives are: 1) To develop a methodology to map the National Ecological Network (NEN) for mainland Portugal and 2) To develop a Land Morphology (LM) mapping method at the national level. LM classifies landforms according to their hydrological position in the watershed and represents a helpful evaluation tool for modelling natural systems. This thesis contributes to the understanding of: i) the NEN as a spatial network that defines areas of existing and potential ecological connectivity at various scales which provides the physical and biological conditions necessary to maintain or restore landscape’ ecological functions; ii) the importance of NEN as an ecologically based tool towards a more sustainable landscape planning, strengthening the notions of connectivity and multi-functionality of landscape; iii) the morphological approach to map Portuguese landforms as valuable tool to assist policy makers and planners in taking decisions based on a more thorough analysis of land value and its ecological functions; and iv) Mapping the wet system at national level may have an impact on clarifying concepts related to water resources and can be used as a preliminary delimitation of floodplains and potential flood risk areasN/