Cauchy's almost forgotten Lagrangian formulation of the Euler equation for 3D incompressible flow

Two prized papers, one by Augustin Cauchy in 1815, presented to the French Academy and the other by Hermann Hankel in 1861, presented to G\"ottingen University, contain major discoveries on vorticity dynamics whose impact is now quickly increasing. Cauchy found a Lagrangian formulation of 3D ideal incompressible flow in terms of three invariants that generalize to three dimensions the now well-known law of conservation of vorticity along fluid particle trajectories for two-dimensional flow. This has very recently been used to prove analyticity in time of fluid particle trajectories for 3D incompressible Euler flow and can be extended to compressible flow, in particular to cosmological dark matter. Hankel showed that Cauchy's formulation gives a very simple Lagrangian derivation of the Helmholtz vorticity-flux invariants and, in the middle of the proof, derived an intermediate result which is the conservation of the circulation of the velocity around a closed contour moving with the fluid. This circulation theorem was to be rediscovered independently by William Thomson (Kelvin) in 1869. Cauchy's invariants were only occasionally cited in the 19th century --- besides Hankel, foremost by George Stokes and Maurice L\'evy --- and even less so in the 20th until they were rediscovered via Emmy Noether's theorem in the late 1960, but reattributed to Cauchy only at the end of the 20th century by Russian scientists.Comment: 23 pages, 6 figures, EPJ H (history), in pres

Fiscal Centralization, Limited Government, and Public Revenues in Europe, 1650-1913

Old Regime polities typically suffered from fiscal fragmentation and absolutist rule. By the start of World War I, however, many such countries had centralized institutions and limited government. This article uses a new panel data set to perform a statistical analysis of political regimes and public revenues in Europe from 1650 to 1913. Panel regressions indicate that centralized and limited regimes were associated with significantly higher revenues than fragmented and absolutist ones. Structural break tests also suggest close relationships between major turning points in revenue series and political transformations

Northern Town Lot Histories of Fairfield, Pennsylvania

Each lot history give the original lot number, original owner, the current address, the owner of the lot in 1860, a description of the lot or dwelling in 1860, a recital of ownership with as much detail as is known, a comprehensive lot history, any known residents in 1860 (may be different than lot owner), and any family notes on any residents mentioned in the lot history. The research is comprehensive, but not necessarily exhaustive. Thorough information for all lots was not always available to the researcher

The Law and the Press

This chapter offers a broad survey of the relationships between the law and the press (primarily the newspaper press) during the nineteenth century. It traces the transition from early decades of vigorous state hostility of the first third of the century, through the gradual relaxation of fiscal and regulatory controls from the 1830s to the 1860s, to the brief period of completely unregulated press production in the 1870s. It examines the main legal engagements of the press in this period: the various forms of libel, political (seditious, blasphemous and obscene), civil and criminal, as well as copyright and contempt of court. In doing so it explores the limits of the ‘free press’ of British constitutional myth, and the complex and mutually constitutive relationship between the press and the law as interests

A Tale of Two Oceans: Market Integration Over the High Seas, 1800-1940.

Long-range market integration is an essential component of globalization but it is still comparatively under-researched. The conventional wisdom relies heavily on the case of Atlantic trade in the period after 1870. This paper covers also the Indian Ocean and extends the period under consideration, from Waterloo to World War Two. Integration started in first half of the 19th century, and timing and extent of convergence differed substantially among products. The second part of the paper analyses the causes of the process with a panel regression and puts forwards a tentative estimate of its welfare effects. The key message of the paper is that simple generalizations about the first globalization are not good substitutes for empirical research.

Physics at the University of Lviv: the first two centuries in the bibliographic aspect

A detailed bibliography related to physics at the University of Lviv (Leopolis, Lemberg, Lw\'ow) in 18th-19th centuries is presented. Over ninety works of various types are listed with a large share being illustrated by title or starting pages. Brief biographical accounts of the authors are given to put their works in the context of the University history