Investigating (in)equalities in organisations: a three-paper thesis on gender and expatriation in the Saudi Arabian context

Abstract

This thesis examines the employment experiences of underrepresented groups, particularly women and non-Western expatriates, within Saudi Arabian organisations. The research contributes to the growing HRM/IHRM literature on employment (in)equalities by examining how socio-cultural and institutional dynamics shape access to opportunities in Saudi Arabia’s distinctive organisational and socio-economic context. The examination of such dynamics with broader cultural and institutional structures is significant because organisations play a pivotal role in either perpetuating or mitigating societal (in)equalities, both locally and globally. This thesis is particularly significant as Saudi Arabia undergoes profound societal and economic reforms under Vision 2030, which prioritises greater workforce diversity and inclusion. Using a qualitative approach and thematic analysis of 85 in-depth interviews conducted in Riyadh, the research investigates how socio-institutional characteristics in the evolving Saudi context shape employment (in)equality. Study 1 applies an intersectional framework to analyse the roles of gender, tribal affiliation, and marital status in shaping women’s employment. The findings reveal that while tribal affiliations and marital status often act as barriers, they also confer certain privileges; for example, tribal networks (wasta) can facilitate job opportunities, and divorce may sometimes offer women increased autonomy. Study 2 explores self-Orientalism among both non-Western expatriates and Saudi nationals, revealing how internalised cultural hierarchies perpetuate discriminatory hiring, pay, and role assignment practices, sometimes reinforced by the Kafala system. This study contributes to IHRM literature by highlighting how socio-cultural dynamics influence employment (in)equalities within Saudi private-sector organisations. Study 3 examines the impact of Islamic religiosity on Saudi women’s workplace experiences, particularly through the lens of various forms of hijab. The findings demonstrate a disconnect between societal support for Islamic modesty and organisational biases, with certain forms of hijab, such as the niqab, hindering career advancement despite social acceptance. Together, these studies contribute to HRM and IHRM literature by examining how intersectionality, Orientalism, and religiosity interact to shape employment (in)equalities. In highlighting the dynamics of employment (in)equalities, the thesis offers valuable insights for understanding the complex interactions between cultural practices, institutional frameworks, and workplace diversity in Saudi Arabia. The thesis provides practical recommendations for organisational leaders and policymakers to promote inclusivity and diversity in the workforce, aligning with the goals of Saudi Vision 2030