Средневековые архетипы и балканские национализмы воин 1912-1913 г.

The Medieval Balkans are characterized by three basic imperial archetypes – Byzantine ecumenism and the imperial ideas of Bulgarians and Serbs. The Byzantine political doctrine based upon the idea that the empire is called upon to impose the Christian religion over the barbarian worlds was transformed throughout the period of the Balkan Revival into the so-called „Megali idea” and found its reflection in the political goals of the Greek Kingdom during the Balkan Wars. The Bulgarian Medieval archetype, expressed in Simeon’s idea of a Bulgarian-Byzantine empire with Constantinople as its capital and in the concept that took shape in the ХІІІ-th century of „Tarnovo – the Third Rome”, gave Paisii Hilendarski grounds to provoke the national self-conscience. The apogee of Renaissance aspirations, San Stefano Bulgaria, was not realized but it gave birth to the myth of „Bulgaria bordering three seas”, which pushed Bulgaria into the wars as a road to national union. The third „player” on the Balkan scene – the Kingdom of Serbia in its turn sought its grounds in Stefan Dushan’s empire and its Renaissance version – the „ Načertanije” of Ilija Garašanin. Thus, the Balkan union, created in the name of a noble and just cause – to liberate their Christian „brothers” from the oppression of the Ottoman Islamic Empire, turned out in its very bud to be on mined  land by these projects imperial in their nature.The Medieval Balkans are characterized by three basic imperial archetypes – Byzantine ecumenism and the imperial ideas of Bulgarians and Serbs. The Byzantine political doctrine based upon the idea that the empire is called upon to impose the Christian religion over the barbarian worlds was transformed throughout the period of the Balkan Revival into the so-called „Megali idea” and found its reflection in the political goals of the Greek Kingdom during the Balkan Wars. The Bulgarian Medieval archetype, expressed in Simeon’s idea of a Bulgarian-Byzantine empire with Constantinople as its capital and in the concept that took shape in the ХІІІ-th century of „Tarnovo – the Third Rome”, gave Paisii Hilendarski grounds to provoke the national self-conscience. The apogee of Renaissance aspirations, San Stefano Bulgaria, was not realized but it gave birth to the myth of „Bulgaria bordering three seas”, which pushed Bulgaria into the wars as a road to national union. The third „player” on the Balkan scene – the Kingdom of Serbia in its turn sought its grounds in Stefan Dushan’s empire and its Renaissance version – the „ Načertanije” of Ilija Garašanin. Thus, the Balkan union, created in the name of a noble and just cause – to liberate their Christian „brothers” from the oppression of the Ottoman Islamic Empire, turned out in its very bud to be on mined land by these projects imperial in their nature.The Medieval Balkans are characterized by three basic imperial archetypes – Byzantine ecumenism and the imperial ideas of Bulgarians and Serbs. The Byzantine political doctrine based upon the idea that the empire is called upon to impose the Christian religion over the barbarian worlds was transformed throughout the period of the Balkan Revival into the so-called „Megali idea” and found its reflection in the political goals of the Greek Kingdom during the Balkan Wars. The Bulgarian Medieval archetype, expressed in Simeon’s idea of a Bulgarian-Byzantine empire with Constantinople as its capital and in the concept that took shape in the ХІІІ-th century of „Tarnovo – the Third Rome”, gave Paisii Hilendarski grounds to provoke the national self-conscience. The apogee of Renaissance aspirations, San Stefano Bulgaria, was not realized but it gave birth to the myth of „Bulgaria bordering three seas”, which pushed Bulgaria into the wars as a road to national union. The third „player” on the Balkan scene – the Kingdom of Serbia in its turn sought its grounds in Stefan Dushan’s empire and its Renaissance version – the „ Načertanije” of Ilija Garašanin. Thus, the Balkan union, created in the name of a noble and just cause – to liberate their Christian „brothers” from the oppression of the Ottoman Islamic Empire, turned out in its very bud to be on mined  land by these projects imperial in their nature.The Medieval Balkans are characterized by three basic imperial archetypes – Byzantine ecumenism and the imperial ideas of Bulgarians and Serbs. The Byzantine political doctrine based upon the idea that the empire is called upon to impose the Christian religion over the barbarian worlds was transformed throughout the period of the Balkan Revival into the so-called „Megali idea” and found its reflection in the political goals of the Greek Kingdom during the Balkan Wars. The Bulgarian Medieval archetype, expressed in Simeon’s idea of a Bulgarian-Byzantine empire with Constantinople as its capital and in the concept that took shape in the ХІІІ-th century of „Tarnovo – the Third Rome”, gave Paisii Hilendarski grounds to provoke the national self-conscience. The apogee of Renaissance aspirations, San Stefano Bulgaria, was not realized but it gave birth to the myth of „Bulgaria bordering three seas”, which pushed Bulgaria into the wars as a road to national union. The third „player” on the Balkan scene – the Kingdom of Serbia in its turn sought its grounds in Stefan Dushan’s empire and its Renaissance version – the „ Načertanije” of Ilija Garašanin. Thus, the Balkan union, created in the name of a noble and just cause – to liberate their Christian „brothers” from the oppression of the Ottoman Islamic Empire, turned out in its very bud to be on mined  land by these projects imperial in their nature

Aspekty ekonomiczne i społeczne wojen bałkańskich 1912-1913

At the dawn of the XXth century the Balkan countries were intent on waging war against Turkey. In the preparation period, however, they had severely exceeded their economic and demographic capabilities. The arms production consumed vast amounts of money, leading to an extraordinary debt of the Balkan states. The 1912-1913 wars have proved to be a veritable ordeal for the economies of the involved countries as well as their social endurance. This great sacrifice was supposed to further the national goal of defeating Turkey and finally establishing the inter-state borders, even in the face of an impending economic collapse. The Balkan conflicts turned into a war of attrition, a harbinger of what was to come during the World War I. The pre-war efforts and the cost of the actual warfare brought Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro as well as Turkey to the brink of economical breakdown and major social turbulence. The calling of 1.3 million men to arms resulted in halting the industrial production and an agricultural crisis in the countries of the Balkan Alliance. The civilian transport sector was non-existent (since all the means and assets had been requisitioned by the military) which proved fatal to the commerce. This in turn greatly diminished the states’ tax income, further worsening the financial repercussions of the war. The number of soldiers fallen, wounded or killed by cholera were reaching hundreds of thousands. Due to the harsh war conditions and the lack of suitable attention many of the wounded have become disabled, which banned them from the work market and doomed them to social benefits. Amongst the consequences of the war were also migrations of the civilians, forced by the war itself and the following border changes. The Christian refugees alone numbered hundreds of thousands, while any real means of administering to the basic needs of the displaced masses were actually non-existent. On the Muslim side the losses amounted to 620,000 Turkish soldiers and civilians. A further 440,000 have been displaced and moved to Anatolia. Moreover the pillage, the atrocity, as well as the destruction of private property have engraved the feelings of mutual hatred and longing for a vendetta in the minds of the Balkan people.At the dawn of the XXth century the Balkan countries were intent on waging war against Turkey. In the preparation period, however, they had severely exceeded their economic and demographic capabilities. The arms production consumed vast amounts of money, leading to an extraordinary debt of the Balkan states. The 1912-1913 wars have proved to be a veritable ordeal for the economies of the involved countries as well as their social endurance. This great sacrifice was supposed to further the national goal of defeating Turkey and finally establishing the inter-state borders, even in the face of an impending economic collapse. The Balkan conflicts turned into a war of attrition, a harbinger of what was to come during the World War I. The pre-war efforts and the cost of the actual warfare brought Bulgaria, Greece,Serbia, Montenegro as well as Turkey to the brink of economical breakdown and major social turbulence. The calling of 1.3 million men to arms resulted in halting the industrial production and an agricultural crisis in the countries of the Balkan Alliance. The civilian transport sector was non-existent (since all the means and assets had been requisitioned by the military) which proved fatal to the commerce. This in turn greatly diminished the states’ tax income, further worsening the financial repercussions of the war. The number of soldiers fallen, wounded or killed by cholera were reaching hundreds of thousands. Due to the harsh war conditions and the lack of suitable attention many of the wounded have become disabled, which banned them from the work market and doomed them to social benefits. Amongst the consequences of the war were also migrations of the civilians, forced by the war itself and the following border changes. The Christian refugees alone numbered hundreds of thousands, while any real means of administering to the basic needs of the displaced masses were actually non-existent. On the Muslim side the losses amounted to 620,000 Turkish soldiers and civilians. A further 440,000 have been displaced and moved to Anatolia. Moreover the pillage, the atrocity, as well as the destruction of private property have engraved the feelings of mutual hatred and longing for a vendetta in the minds of the Balkan people

Балканы, Германия и Австро-Венгрия накануне и в годы мировой войны в эстонской национальной историографии межвоенного периода

The article gives an overview of approaches that has been developed in interwar Estonian historiography of world affairs in the Balkans on the eve and during WWI. In that time the progress in the researchers of world history has been noticed in Estonian national historical science. Despite scarcity in their number and predominance among them of those who has been making only first steps in science, or so-called „beginners”, Estonian scholars have displayed certain achievements in this field. Young Estonian authors have focused their efforts on studies of German foreign policy combinations, internal weakness of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, strengthening of the national movements in Dual Monarchy and particular territorial interests of Great Powers. So-called young generation of the scholars has been influenced on the side of their elder „mentors”, specialists in world history, have defined Balkans as the fulcrum of WWI. The preponderance of German factor in their writings should be explained with the fact that Germany has been playing strong and active role in many spheres of Estonian life for a long time span. In some ways, it affected also sociological approach to analysis of world affairs. Both young and elder Estonian historians shared of socially oriented ideas of independent nationhood, which served as basic principal of their explanations of the international events and which has been seriously influenced by Estonia’s domestic situation.The article gives an overview of approaches that has been developed in interwar Estonian historiography of world affairs in the Balkans on the eve and during WWI. In that time the progress in the researchers of world history has been noticed in Estonian national historical science. Despite scarcity in their number and predominance among them of those who has been making only first steps in science, or so-called „beginners”, Estonian scholars have displayed certain achievements in this field. Young Estonian authors have focused their efforts on studies of German foreign policy combinations, internal weakness of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, strengthening of the national movements in Dual Monarchy and particular territorial interests of Great Powers. So-called young generation of the scholars has been influenced on the side of their elder „mentors”, specialists in world history, have defined Balkans as the fulcrum of WWI. The preponderance of German factor in their writings should be explained with the fact that Germany has been playing strong and active role in many spheres of Estonian life for a long time span. In some ways, it affected also sociological approach to analysis of world affairs. Both young and elder Estonian historians shared of socially oriented ideas of independent nationhood, which served as basic principal of their explanations of the international events and which has been seriously influenced by Estonia’s domestic situation.The article gives an overview of approaches that has been developed in interwar Estonian historiography of world affairs in the Balkans on the eve and during WWI. In that time the progress in the researchers of world history has been noticed in Estonian national historical science. Despite scarcity in their number and predominance among them of those who has been making only first steps in science, or so-called „beginners”, Estonian scholars have displayed certain achievements in this field. Young Estonian authors have focused their efforts on studies of German foreign policy combinations, internal weakness of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, strengthening of the national movements in Dual Monarchy and particular territorial interests of Great Powers. So-called young generation of the scholars has been influenced on the side of their elder „mentors”, specialists in world history, have defined Balkans as the fulcrum of WWI. The preponderance of German factor in their writings should be explained with the fact that Germany has been playing strong and active role in many spheres of Estonian life for a long time span. In some ways, it affected also sociological approach to analysis of world affairs. Both young and elder Estonian historians shared of socially oriented ideas of independent nationhood, which served as basic principal of their explanations of the international events and which has been seriously influenced by Estonia’s domestic situation

Wojny bałkańskie 1912-1913 przyczyną rozwoju nacjonalizmu „gorącego” na Bałkanach w XX wieku. Zarys problemu

The aim of this article is to examine the origin of “hot nationalism” in the Balkans. Undoubtedly, this kind of nationalism was the final element of the Balkan Wars, that erupted in 1912. The author presents the hypothesis that all Balkan conflicts have in common many factors. First of all, they were leading to develop of the modern nationalism. The ethnic cleansing, which were conducted during the Balkans Wars became the origin of the next Balkan conflicts in XX and XXI centuries. Furthermore, the most important acts of cruelty, violations, rapes, murders are being described along with the overall as it is being manifested in the case of Macedonia. The crucial source of this article constitutes The other Balkan Wars. A 1913 Carnegie Endowment inquiry in retrospect with a new introduction and reflections on the present conflict by George F. Kennan, written in Washington 1993, based on Carnegie Commission Report (1914), whose authors emphasized that “hot nationalism” manifested itself on the field of battle, drew on deeper traits of character inherited, presumably, from a distant tribal past, a tendency to view the outsider, with dark suspicion, and to see the political opponent as a fearful and implacable enemy to be rendered harmless only by total and unpitying destruction. The author asks the question if the “Eastern nationalism”, the most ferocious nationalism, still causes the threat to the security not only in the South Europe but also in the Old Continent?The aim of this paper is to examine the origin of “hot nationalism” in the Balkans. Undoubtedly, this kind of nationalism was the final element of the Balkan Wars, that erupted in 1912. The author presents the hypothesis that all Balkan conflicts have in common many factors. First of all, they were leading to develop of the modern nationalism. The ethnic cleansing, which were conducted during the Balkans Wars became the origin of the next Balkan conflicts in XX and XXI centuries. Furthermore, the most important acts of cruelty, violations, rapes, murders are being described along with the overall as it is being manifested in the case of Macedonia. The crucial source of this article constitutes The other Balkan Wars. A 1913 Carnegie Endowment inquiry in retrospect with a new introduction and reflections on the present conflict by George F. Kennan, written in Washington 1993, based on Carnegie Commission Report (1914), whose authors emphasized that “hot nationalism” manifested itself on the field of battle, drew on deeper traits of character inherited, presumably, from a distant tribal past, a tendency to view the outsider, with dark suspicion, and to see the political opponent as a fearful and implacable enemy to be rendered harmless only by total and unpitying destruction. The author asks the question if the “Eastern nationalism”, the most ferocious nationalism, still causes the threat to the security not only in the South Europe but also in the Old Continent

Łacinniczka na tronie trzynastowiecznej Serbii. Wizerunek królowej Jeleny z Andegawenów w pismach arcybiskupa Danila II

The main purpose of this article is to present one of the most interesting women in the history of medieval Serbia – Helene d’Anjou (Jelena Anžujska), the wife of the king Stefan Uroš I and the mother of Stefan Dragutin and Stefan Milutin. Queen Jelena’s origin has so far not been established with certainty. She is supposed to be the daughter of Raoul de Courtenay, the cousin of Louis IX of France, Charles d’Anjou, king of Naples and Baldwin, emperor of Constantinople after the Latin conquest. It is also important to confirm that she was a Catholic. The most reliable source of information about her life is the biography written by Danilo II, archbishop of the Serbian Orthodox Church. This is the only life of a woman that he wrote and is particularly valuable because Danilo knew Jelena personally and clearly liked and admired her.The main purpose of this article is to present one of the most interesting women in the history of medieval Serbia – Helene d’Anjou (Jelena Anžujska), the wife of the king Stefan Uroš I and the mother of Stefan Dragutin and Stefan Milutin. Queen Jelena’s origin has so far not been established with certainty. She is supposed to be the daughter of Raoul de Courtenay, the cousin of Louis IX of France, Charles d’Anjou, king of Naples and Baldwin, emperor of Constantinople after the Latin conquest. It is also important to confirm that she was a Catholic. The most reliable source of information about her life is the biography written by Danilo II, archbishop of the Serbian Orthodox Church. This is the only life of a woman that he wrote and is particularly valuable because Danilo knew Jelena personally and clearly likedand admired he

Półwysep Bałkański jako obszar działań militarnych podczas wojen bałkańskich. Charakterystyka geograficzno-wojskowa

The Balkan peninsula on account of its peculiar location and the terrain constitutes the unusually interesting object of the research on military conflicts. Forms of operations applied in conflicts, which took place in the range border of the geographical-political Balkans, let read wars run in this area in the course of a few hundred years. Based on experience resulting from the conflicts of Balkan and other antagonisms, which occurred on the Peninsula during the last century, it is possible to state that the conducted research on meaning of this area can constitute the initial base to next research on Balkan military conflicts. Furthermore, the terrain and its components always serve as a toll to pinpoint the indispensable measures to conduct the wars.The Balkan peninsula on account of its peculiar location and the terrain constitutes the unusually interesting object of the research on military conflicts. Forms of operations applied in conflicts, which took place in the range border of the geographical-political Balkans, let read wars run in this area in the course of a few hundred years. Based on experience resulting from the conflicts of Balkan and other antagonisms, which occurred on the Peninsula during the last century, it is possible to state that the conducted research on meaning of this area can constitute the initial base to next research on Balkan military conflicts. Furthermore, the terrain and its components always serve as a toll to pinpoint the indispensable measures to conduct the wars