Art, inscriptions, and sacred space: A survey of Śaiva traditions in Southeast Asia

Background: The spread of Śaiva dharma in Southeast Asia is a vital chapter in the history of cross-cultural religious and political exchange between India and the wider region. This article traces the transmission of Śaiva ideas, rituals, and temple culture to the regions such as present-day Cambodia, Indonesia, Vietnam, and also includes examples from Laos, focusing on archaeological, inscriptional, and iconographic evidence. It investigates the royal patronage of Śaiva dharma, the regional adaptations of Indian forms, and the development of indigenous expressions of Śaiva worship. Methods: This paper is based on textual analysis, visual study of temple architecture, and secondary sources. Finding: The findings show that Śaiva practices were not simply imported from India but gradually integrated into local contexts through dynamic processes of reinterpretation, royal sponsorship, and ritual localisation. The study undertakes a regional survey of the spread and localisation of Śaiva dharma across Southeast Asia, drawing on epigraphic, architectural, and textual evidence. Conclusion: This study concludes that the spread of Śaiva dharma in Southeast Asia was not a one-way transmission from India, but a process of selective adoption, creative adaptation, and localisation. By examining evidence from Cambodia, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Laos, the research highlights how Śaiva traditions became deeply intertwined with local political authority, artistic production, and ritual life, producing uniquely regional forms of Śaiva practice that endured for centuries. Novelty/Originality of this article: The originality of this article lies in its comparative regional approach, which integrates epigraphic, iconographic, and architectural evidence to show how Śaiva dharma was reinterpreted within diverse Southeast Asian cultural settings

The Parāvidyā–Aparāvidyā paradigm in Hindu epistemology as a foundational framework for Hindu higher education in Indonesia

Background: The Parāvidyā–Aparāvidyā paradigm serves as a foundational epistemological framework within the Hindu knowledge system, emphasizing the integration of material (aparā) and spiritual-transcendental (parā) dimensions. This article critically examines the relevance and urgency of this paradigm as a basis for constructing a distinct Hindu epistemology, particularly in the context of developing curricula and the educational vision of Hindu Higher Education in Indonesia. Through a philosophical analysis of primary sources such as the Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad, Chāndogya Upaniṣad, and Vedānta Sūtra, this study argues that the Parāvidyā Aparāvidyā framework not only bridges empirical and spiritual knowledge, but also offers a viable alternative to the hegemony of the Western positivist paradigm that has long dominated educational systems.  Methods: Employing a qualitative-hermeneutic and conceptual approach, this paper demonstrates that the application of this paradigm can foster a holistic educational model grounded in values of civility, spirituality, and self-awareness. Finding: The findings indicate that while awareness of the duality between spiritual and worldly knowledge is growing within Hindu Religious Higher Education Institutions/Perguruan Tinggi Keagamaan Hindu (PTKH), its implementation remains limited and has not yet been systematically integrated into curricula, pedagogy, or assessment practices. The findings recommend a reformulation of the epistemological orientation of Hindu Higher Education toward a learning system that balances sakala and niskala aspects, thus better equipping it to address contemporary civilizational challenges in a sustainable and Dharma-based manner. Conclusion: Through a hermeneutic and transdisciplinary approach, this research has constructed an alternative epistemic model DIKWP (Data–Information–Knowledge–Wisdom–Peace), which not only expands the conventional DIKW framework but also enriches the spiritual dimension of intellectual formation. True knowledge, from a Hindu perspective, does not culminate in wisdom alone but must result in inner transformation, manifesting as peace (śānti) and spiritual liberation (mokṣa). Novelty/Originality of this article: The novelty of this study lies in its philosophical reconstruction of the Parāvidyā–Aparāvidyā paradigm as a comprehensive epistemological framework for Hindu Higher Education in Indonesia

Adolescents' perceptions of the effectiveness of Vedic learning through digital platforms

Introduction: The implementation of Vedic learning through digital platforms represents an innovative approach in Hindu religious education, leveraging technological advancements to enhance learning quality and effectively impart Vedic teachings to younger generations. In an era marked by rapid technological development, the study of Hinduism, particularly Vedic teachings, must be adapted to remain relevant and engaging for adolescents. This study aims to explore Hindu adolescents' perceptions of the effectiveness of Vedic learning through digital platforms and identify the factors influencing their views on this learning method. Methods: A quantitative approach with a survey research design was employed. The sample consisted of 36 Hindu students from seventh grade, selected using proportional random sampling. Data collection was conducted through a Likert-scale questionnaire designed to assess adolescents' perceptions of ease of use, material quality, and interaction in digital learning. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics to illustrate adolescents' perceptions of the effectiveness of digital Vedic learning. Findings: The findings indicate that the majority of Hindu adolescents hold a positive perception of digital Vedic learning. Key factors supporting its effectiveness include easy access to materials, flexible study schedules, and enhanced comprehension of Vedic teachings through digital visualization. However, challenges were also identified, particularly the limited direct interaction with instructors, which affects the depth of understanding of more complex Vedic concepts. Some students also expressed that they felt a lack of spiritual experience, which is typically more profound in face-to-face learning settings. Conclusion: In conclusion, digital Vedic learning is considered effective, though several challenges must be addressed, such as enhancing student-teacher interaction and ensuring the continued quality of instructional materials. Novelty/Originality of this article: With the appropriate digital platforms, Vedic education can be well received by Hindu youth and serve as a crucial tool in preserving and promoting Vedic teachings in the digital age

The conservation of the white cattle of Taro as a representation of Prāṇī-Dharma values, biodiversity preservation, and religious heritage

Background: The breeding of white cattle in Taro Village, Bali, is not merely an agricultural or economic activity, but one deeply intertwined with spiritual values rooted in the concept of Prāṇī-Dharma. In this context, white cattle are revered not only as symbols of prosperity and wealth, but also as sacred beings that embody harmony between humans and nature. This study aims to explore how the breeding of white cattle in Taro functions as a representation of Prāṇī-Dharma values, particularly in relation to the preservation of tradition and ecology.  Methods: Employing a qualitative case study approach, this research involved in-depth interviews with breeders, religious figures, and local community members, as well as field observations of rituals and cattle-rearing practices. The data were analyzed thematically to identify the connections between Hindu spiritual concepts and the practice of white cattle breeding.  Finding: The findings reveal that the breeding of Taro’s white cattle reflects an integration of spiritual and ecological dimensions within the local community. The white cattle are regarded as symbols of purity and environmental balance, protected through the principles of Ahimsa (non-violence) and Karuṇā (compassion), which lie at the heart of Prāṇī-Dharma. This practice also plays a vital role in the conservation of living beings and the preservation of local cultural traditions. Conclusion: The study concludes that the breeding of white cattle in Taro is not only a conservation practice but also a means of reinforcing moral and spiritual values within Hindu society. This research contributes to the understanding of the relationship between divine ecology and traditional conservation, enriching the discourse on how religion and local culture support environmental sustainability. Novelty/Originality of this article: The uniqueness of this study lies in the placement of white cattle breeding in Taro as an applied model of Prāṇī-Dharma, which shows how spiritual ethics directly influence conservation practices

Embodying the divine in Bali gender, ritual authority, and the politics of representation in Hindu

Background: This article examines how women's bodies serve as a medium for divine power, or Śakti (transcendent feminine power), in Balinese Hindu rituals, to explain the articulation of religious authority and gender representation within patriarchal customary structures. Conceptually, this study draws on literature concerning ritual embodiment, religion as material practice, and community-based gender activism, which shows that religious authority arises from the performativity of sanctity embedded in social relations. Methods: The methods used include religious ethnography with participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and the documentation of rituals performed by female leaders such as Jero Mangku Istri and Jero Balian, as well as an in-depth case study of a female priest who her community has recognized since childhood as a medium for the goddess Danu. Finding: Women are not merely ritual performers but key actors who materialize and mediate the divine through movement, voice, and spiritual service; their authority is often not formally institutionalized but gains spiritual and symbolic legitimacy through communal recognition. These results align with the framework of ritual and material religion: transcendent experiences, the performativity of sanctity, and social networks work together to shape women's religious authority despite structural male domination. Conclusion: In conclusion, women's bodies become a field of negotiation between the sacred and the profane as well as a source of effective religious authority at the practical level. Novelty/Originality of this article: The novelty of this research lies in its empirical demonstration of how women's bodies as mediums of Śakti generate community-recognized authority despite not being formalized, as well as in its integration of religious ethnography with the framework of materialization and religion to map the dynamics of gender and power in contemporary Balinese Hinduism

Transformative coping and spirituality: The case of the Kakure Kirishitan during the Tokugawa period

Background: This study explores the historical experiences and psychological resilience of the Kakure Kirishitan (Hidden Christians) during the Tokugawa period of Japan, focusing on their coping strategies during religious persecution. The research aims to (1) understand the nature and impact of the Tokugawa regime’s suppression of Christianity and (2) analyse how the Kakure Kirishitan cope with the stress of oppression to preserve their faith by using the Transformative Coping Model (TCM).  Methods: This study applies qualitative historical analysis by synthesising scholarly literature, primary accounts, and theoretical perspectives, especially those related to stress-coping, spirituality, and resilience. The geographical and historical focus is Japan between the 17th and 19th centuries, during which Christianity was outlawed. Findings: Findings reveal that the Kakure Kirishitan employed various creative and spiritual coping mechanisms, including religious syncretism, oral transmission, symbolic secrecy, and ritual innovation. These strategies allowed them to maintain both their religious identity and communal cohesion in secret. Their use of encoded rituals and adapted theology illustrates how adversity was transformed into spiritual growth and cultural preservation. Despite psychological burdens such as fear and trauma, the Kakure Kirishitan interpreted suffering as divine testing, reinforcing their endurance across generations. Conclusion: This study concludes that the Kakure Kirishitan’s survival reflects the core principles of transformative coping—meaning-making, creativity, and collective resilience—as they shaped a unique spiritual identity under prolonged oppression. Novelty/Originality of this article: This study offers a novel contribution by linking the historical experience of the Kakure Kirishitan with the Transformative Coping Model (TCM), a framework rarely applied in historical religious studies

Western psychology and eastern psycho-spirituality in dialogue: A comparative analysis of Freudian structural model of the psyche and Triguna model of the Bhagavad Gita

Background: This article attempts to examine the shared perspectives of Sanatan Psycho-spiritual theory and Freud’s psychoanalytic theory apropos of the construction of human personality. The objective of this article is to demonstrate how a theological text, composed approximately 5,000 years ago, articulates key concepts that exhibit remarkable parallels with modern psychological theories, which are grounded in empirical inquiry and theoretical speculation. By examining these intersections, this study aims to contribute to the development of an interdisciplinary framework, bridging ancient philosophical thought with contemporary psychological discourse and opening new avenues for scholarly exploration. Methods: By examining the concept of Tri-Guna alongside Freudian Structural Model of the Psyche, the study aims to foreground how Eastern and Western paradigms participating in a dialogue can offer complementary understandings of human psychology and psycho-spirituality. Findings: Operating from this perspective, this article uncovers the deeper philosophical and psychological underpinnings common to both Freudian and Satan Psycho-spiritual school of thought, focusing on the concepts of Tamas, Rajas, and Sattva, and their Western equivalents – Id, Ego, and Superego. Conclusion: The comparative analysis of the Bhagavad Gita’s concept of Tri-gunas and Freud’s structural model of the psyche reveals a shared perspective that human personality and behavior are fundamentally shaped by underlying biological constructs. This framework highlights the intricate entanglement of Determinism and Free Will within both schools of thought. Novelty/Originality of this article: By disentangling these connections, this paper proposes to offer new insights into how Eastern and Western thought systems converge in their understanding of human nature, mind and psyche and the pursuit of an equanimous-mind. The comparisons in this article shed light on the intricacy and entanglement between Determinism and Free Will, introducing new coordinates for dialogue between the Western model of the psyche and Eastern psycho-spirituality, fostering a discourse that will deepen our perspectives and contribute to the advancement of psychological scholarship

Examining the variables influencing religious leaders' interest in Bhagavad Gita studies: A case study of susut sub-district

Background: The Bhagavad Gita is a sacred text in the Hindu tradition that contains teachings about duty (dharma), devotion (bhakti), wisdom (jnana), and discipline (yoga). This research aims to understand the factors that influence the interest of Pemangku (Hindu priests) in Susut District, Bangli Regency, Bali, in studying the Bhagavad Gita. Methods: Using qualitative research methods, data were obtained through a combination of open and closed questionnaires comprising 34 questions. Finding: The research results show that the majority of Pemangku have undergraduate education (30%) and junior high school education (30%), with 50% of them having never read the Bhagavad Gita. The primary motivations for those who study the Bhagavad Gita are self-development, spiritual improvement, and facing life challenges. Despite high interest, the Pemangku face obstacles such as limited access to learning resources (50%) and difficulty understanding the contents of the text without guidance. The discussion reveals the importance of a structured learning approach involving mentors or teachers and strengthening social support in the learning process. Additionally, adaptive and accessible learning methods need to be developed to bridge the gap between ancient texts and modern life contexts. Conclusion This research concludes that the interest of Pemangku in the Bhagavad Gita is influenced by educational background, personal motivation, learning methods, and access to learning resources. Recommendations are provided to improve the accessibility and quality of learning this sacred text in the future

International marriage migration from Thailand to India: The socio-cultural and religious intermediary in the digital era

Background: This qualitative study examines the factors driving the international marriage migration of Thai women to Indian men in the digital age, focusing on how socio-cultural and religious themes are expressed through their YouTube channels and Facebook pages. Methods The research uses a desktop methodology to analyze secondary data, including publicly available videos, posts, comments, and interactions from six selected YouTube channels, each boasting over 100,000 views and active user communities relevant to the topic. Data collection occurred from September to November 2024. The study integrates concepts from globalization, Robert Sternberg’s Triangle Theory of Love, intercultural communication, identity, and diaspora to dissect these dynamics by content analysis. Key findings include the stages of meeting and falling in love, the adaptation process to new family environments, and content produced on social media addressing themes like food culture, religious practices, cultural values, and child-rearing methods. The audience's reflections on these topics were also analyzed. Finding: Although India's population of Thai wives is relatively small, their YouTube and social media platforms have attracted international attention. This visibility can foster greater socio-cultural and religious understanding between India and Thailand, promoting interconnectedness and cooperation in the region. If the Thai embassy and consulates in India were to facilitate a network for these Thai wives, they could effectively champion “Thainess” within the context of “Indianness.” As “civilian ambassadors,” these women could enhance cultural diplomacy between the two nations, contributing to stronger ties and mutual respect. Conclusion: No studies have investigated Thai wives in India functioning as YouTubers. This research underscores the meaningful and authentic socio-cultural and religious perspectives disseminated by these women through digital channels, perspectives largely unacknowledged within the Thai context.

Rejang Pedawa dance as a medium for ethnopedagogical-based adolescent learning

Background: The ethno-pedagogical-based educational approach serves as a medium for the socialization of cultural values, as it contains local content that assists individuals in their social lives. Ethnopedagogical education becomes a variant of the learning process that is conducted by studying local arts in each region. One of these local arts is the Rejang Dance of Pedawa Village. This dance contains cultural values that can provide behavioral orientation to the people of Pedawa Village, especially young women. This research aims to analyze the existence of the Rejang Dance of Pedawa Village as an ethno-pedagogical basis that can be optimized in developing the character of young women. Methods: Research on the Rejang Dance of Pedawa Village as a medium for developing adolescent character based on ethno-pedagogy using a qualitative approach. The data analysis techniques from this research consist of data collection, data reduction, data presentation, and conclusions. This research uses a data collection process consisting of interviews, observations, and document studies. Findings: Dance is considered to develop social, emotional, and cognitive intelligence. Learning dance can serve as a medium for improving social intelligence because its teaching emphasizes interaction within learning groups. The desire to continue learning will also shape the character of "self-regulation," where individuals can control themselves and evaluate themselves. The actions and solutions created are not merely formalities but hold significance. Through non-formal educational institutions (traditional villages), character-building youth have the responsible freedom to take all kinds of actions, that are oriented towards the public. Action becomes an embodiment, that students as learners have a contextual orientation, what is obtained is not only enjoyed theoretically but also implemented practically. This is the habitus and utility of education in building students' character in the dimension of "cultural capital." Conclusion: On the other hand, the existence of art attraction can also be used to improve character values for teenage girls. Novelty/Originality of this article: In Ethno pedagogy, the Rejang Dance of Pedawa Village can be seen as an opportunity to instill character and emotional values by integrating traditional elements into character-based learning elements