Common Ground: Dutch-South African Architectural Exchanges 1902-1961

Review of a book written by Nicholas J. Clarke, Roger C. Fisher and M.C. Kuipers (eds)  Bespreking van een boek van Nicholas J. Clarke, Roger C. Fisher en M.C. Kuipers (red) &nbsp

Tanken in de stad: De typologische ontwikkeling van service-en benzinestations in Antwerpen, 1945-1975

The global automotive industry has undergone major developments in the last decade, perhaps the most decisive transformations in its one hundred-year existence. The current fundamental transition from a fossil fuel-driven motor to an electric power source heralds the end of an era. This revolutionary change is perhaps a good time to reflect upon the past one hundred years of fossil-fuel powered driving and in particular on its very distinctive service architecture. This article provides insight into the evolution from kerbside pump to self-service petrol station within the greater Antwerp area of Belgium in the period 1945 to 1975. It is a condensed version of an architectural-historical research project based on over two hundred building and environmental permits held in the Antwerp City Archives and involving the close study and analysis of a set of parameters. The outcome of this research served as the basis for conclusions about developments in the design of post-war service stations seen in relation to the socio-economic situation and the evolving spatial design of the city of Antwerp. In situ research into the current state of those buildings or locations resulted in an inventory of surviving examples of this built heritage which could serve as basis for further revaluation and, ultimately, protection of part of this built heritage.De wereldwijde automobielindustrie bevindt zich de laatste jaren in de grootste omwenteling sinds haar ontstaan, nu zo’n honderd jaar geleden. De nog lopende omschakeling van aandrijving door fossiele brandstoffen naar een elektrische krachtbron luidt het einde van een tijdperk in. Deze revolutie is een goede aanleiding om terug te kijken op honderd jaar rijden op benzine– en de bijbehorende service-architectuur. In dit kader geeft Thomas Vanhaute een representatief overzicht van de ontwikkeling van straatpomp naar selfservice station in Antwerpen en de directe omgeving in de periode 1945 tot en met 1975. Het is een beknopte weergave van een architectuurhistorisch onderzoek op basis van meer dan 200 bouwaanvragen en milieuvergunningen uit het Stadsarchief van Antwerpen waarin een aantal parameters van naderbij bekeken en geanalyseerd werden. Hierdoor was het mogelijk om ontwikkelingslijnen van de naoorlogse service- en benzinestations bloot te leggen en vervolgens te duiden in het licht van de socio-economische en stedenbouwkundige situatie en transformaties in en rond de stad. Door het historisch onderzoek te koppelen aan actueel in situ-onderzoek, konden bovendien de nog bestaande restanten van deze structuur opgespoord en voor herwaardering en bescherming aangemerkt worden

Brown over Rietveld: Het begin van de moderne architectuurgeschiedenis aan het Kunsthistorisch Instituut in Utrecht

In the post-war historiography of Dutch modern architecture, the monograph of Gerrit Rietveld written by the American architectural historian Theodore Morey Brown (1958) played a pioneering role. The Work of G. Rietveld, Architect was the first monograph of a by then already internationally renowned Dutch architect and since it was written in English it was also the only source of detailed information about Rietveld for an international readership. Brown was the first art historian in the Netherlands to write a dissertation on a living architect; as such, his book signalled the start of modern architectural history as practised by art historians. Yet despite the fact that it is almost impossible to overstate the significance of Brown’s study, the book remains until this day a curiosity. Why was the first scholarly work on Rietveld written by an American scholar and published in the English language? Who was Theodore Morey Brown and how did he end up at a Dutch university in the 1950s? This article examines the history of Brown’s book: its genesis from a research initiative by post-war Dutch professors of art history to the contents of the final book. It also discusses the international historiographical debate in which Brown participated. Brown’s book heralded a new era in the relationship between the art historian and the architect, one that was connected with the challenge to write contemporary history from an ideologically engaged attitude. As an ‘operative history’ Brown’s book was distinguished by its collaborative nature. While it was a book about a single architect written by a single historian, in the background there was a ‘team Rietveld’ consisting of, among others, the historian Pieter Singelenberg and the designer Truus Schröder-Schräder, who were vital to its creation. Only with the help of these people could the work of Rietveld be made accessible to a foreign scholar who, upon arrival in the Netherlands, did not speak the Dutch language. This article argues that Brown’s book was important not only for the historiography on Rietveld. The book also had an institutional significance as it ushered in the study of modern architectural history by art historians in the Netherlands.In the post-war historiography of Dutch modern architecture, the monograph of Gerrit Rietveld written by the American architectural historian Theodore Morey Brown (1958) played a pioneering role. The Work of G. Rietveld, Architect was the first monograph of a by then already internationally renowned Dutch architect and since it was written in English it was also the only source of detailed information about Rietveld for an international readership. Brown was the first art historian in the Netherlands to write a dissertation on a living architect; as such, his book signalled the start of modern architectural history as practised by art historians. Yet despite the fact that it is almost impossible to overstate the significance of Brown’s study, the book remains until this day a curiosity. Why was the first scholarly work on Rietveld written by an American scholar and published in the English language? Who was Theodore Morey Brown and how did he end up at a Dutch university in the 1950s? This article examines the history of Brown’s book: its genesis from a research initiative by post-war Dutch professors of art history to the contents of the final book. It also discusses the international historiographical debate in which Brown participated. Brown’s book heralded a new era in the relationship between the art historian and the architect, one that was connected with the challenge to write contemporary history from an ideologically engaged attitude. As an ‘operative history’ Brown’s book was distinguished by its collaborative nature. While it was a book about a single architect written by a single historian, in the background there was a ‘team Rietveld’ consisting of, among others, the historian Pieter Singelenberg and the designer Truus Schröder-Schräder, who were vital to its creation. Only with the help of these people could the work of Rietveld be made accessible to a foreign scholar who, upon arrival in the Netherlands, did not speak the Dutch language. This article argues that Brown’s book was important not only for the historiography on Rietveld. The book also had an institutional significance as it ushered in the study of modern architectural history by art historians in the Netherlands

Victor Bourgeois 1897-1962: Modernity, Tradition & Neutrality

Review of a book written by Iwan StrauvenBespreking van een boek van Iwan Strauve

Paleis Het Loo: Een koninklijk huis

Review of a book written by Anne-Dirk Renting (composition and editing)Bespreking van een boek van Anne-Dirk Renting (samenstelling en redactie

De eeuw van de grote reparaties: Funderingsherstel en andere constructieve ingrepen in Amsterdam in de vroegmoderne tijd

This article considers several major repairs to Amsterdam buildings during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It concerns two types of reparation: strengthening of foundations and repair of supporting and roof structures. Foundation problems could be caused by a fluctuating groundwater level, an insufficiently deep foundation, or defects in the construction, sometimes compounded by irregularities in the natural marshy substratum. Apart from houses, whose foundations had already been reinforced much earlier, repairs to towers were undertaken from the early seventeenth century. This usually entailed sinking supplementary footings to which the existing structure was anchored. Well-known examples are the Stadhuis tower, the Montelbaan tower and the tower of the Oude Kerk. Repairs to supporting and roof structures were often due to other issues such as overdue maintenance, overly heavy or incorrect loading, construction defects, and the effect of external forces like wind. Repairs to the roof of the Burgerzaal in 1700 were due to faulty construction and water ingress. An example of external forces was the Lisbon earthquake of 1 November 1755, which was also felt in Amsterdam, and two further tremors in December of that year and on 18 February 1756. It was probably these earthquakes that prompted the city authorities to demolish dilapidated houses shortly hereafter and to carry out major repairs to the Montelbaan tower and the Oosterkerk. As the examples presented in this article show, very costly repairs were sometimes required to ensure a building’s continued existence. But what is also clear is that while some of this restoration work was undertaken in response to a single incident like an earthquake, the phenomenon of restoration is inherent to the long lifespan of buildings.Dit artikel gaat in op een aantal zeer ingrijpende reparaties van Amsterdamse gebouwen in de zeventiende en achttiende eeuw. Het gaat daarbij om twee soorten reparaties: herstel van fundamenten en reparatie van steun- en kapconstructies. Problemen met fundamenten konden worden veroorzaakt door een fluctuerende grondwaterstand, een te hoog gelegd fundament of ondeugdelijkheden in de constructie, al dan niet in combinatie met onregelmatigheden in de natuurlijke drassige ondergrond. Behalve huizen, waarvan de fundamenten al veel eerder werden verstevigd, kwamen vanaf de vroege zeventiende eeuw reparaties van torens voor. Daarbij werd doorgaans een extra fundering geslagen waaraan de bestaande structuur werd verankerd. Bekende voorbeelden zijn de Stadhuistoren, de Montelbaanstoren en de toren van de Oude Kerk. Reparatie van steun- en kapconstructies had vaak een andere reden: achterstallig onderhoud, te zware of onjuiste belasting, bouwfouten en krachtenwerking van buitenaf, zoals wind of andere krachten. De reparatie van de kap van de Burgerzaal in 1700 werd uitgevoerd vanwege een ondeugdelijke constructie en inwatering. Een voorbeeld van krachten van buitenaf vormt de ook in Amsterdam gevoelde aardbeving van Lissabon van 1 november 1755 en twee latere bevingen, in december van dat jaar en op 18 februari 1756. Deze aardschokken waren vermoedelijk de aanleiding dat het stadsbestuur kort hierna bouwvallige huizen in de stad liet slopen, en ook om de Montelbaanstoren en de Oosterkerk ingrijpend te herstellen. De in dit artikel gepresenteerde voorbeelden laten zien dat er soms uiterst kostbare herstellingen moesten worden uitgevoerd om het voortbestaan van een gebouw te garanderen. Hiermee wordt tevens duidelijk dat dit soort herstel weliswaar kan worden ingegeven door een incident zoals een aardbeving, maar dat herstel een fenomeen is dat onlosmakelijk is verbonden met de lange levenscyclus van gebouwe

Zendingsarchitect Pieter Simon Dijkstra en zijn Nederlandse werken

Pieter Simon Dijkstra (1884-1968) is regarded as a noted Protestant church designer in South Africa, but his contribution to the built environment in the Netherlands is much less well known. His life and career in the country of his birth are of interest because they are closely aligned with the religious turbulence of the period, in which the anti-revolutionary clergyman-politician Abraham Kuyper played a prominent role. The building of new Reformed churches and schools was a direct expression of the zealous determination to spread the ‘true faith’. The architecture of the new Reformed churches was often modest and restrained, influenced by Kuyper’s view that the church space should serve the ‘gathering of the faithful’ and be arranged in such a way that congregants could see and hear one other and the minister. Dijkstra, born to a clergyman father with a missionary zeal, delivered various designs in this Reformed context. Although Dijkstra grew up and trained in the northern Netherlands, Zeeland became  his main area of operation. In 1908, after time spent working in Groningen (Spijk) and Germany, Dijkstra settled in Vlissingen (Flushing) where he set up his own architectural practice. At the time Vlissingen was an internationally oriented city undergoing a radical transformation under the direction of the liberal alderman of public works, J.G. van Niftrik jr. (1889-1924). Dijkstra designed two new hall-type Reformed churches: one in Geersdijk (1910) and the Eben Haëzer church in Vlissingen (1910). There followed a remarkable inter-denominational collaboration after the English Presbyterian community’s place of worship in the St Jacob’s Church was destroyed by fire in 1911. After Dijkstra’s initial design for a simple hall church was rejected, the authoritative Catholic architect Pierre Cuypers (1827-1921) was commissioned to provide a sketch design for a small yet monumental building. Cuypers’ design for a neogothic church based on an octagonal plan was further elaborated by Dijkstra. The church was inaugurated in 1914. This unique project was followed by the Vlaswiek Reformed Church in Bovensmilde (Drenthe, 1915) and the Reformed Church in Kamperland (Noord-Beveland, 1923). The design for this robust church with corner tower and amphitheatre arrangement is in line with Kuyper’s views and foreshadows Dijkstra’s later church designs in South Africa. Dijkstra designed school buildings for the various Reformed communities in and around Vlissingen (in Koudekerke and Arnemuiden) and social housing estates, including three for the Protestant-Christian housing association Gemeenschappelijk Belang (Common Interest), partly in collaboration with P.J. Hamers (1882-1966). Among his commissions for retail spaces is the striking expressionist radio shop he designed for H.J. van der Meer en Zonen (1923 and 1926), still extant. In 1927, all out of the blue, Dijkstra decided to emigrate with his family to South Africa, where he continued to develop as a Reformed church architect. This article not only provides an assessment of his Dutch oeuvre as a prefiguration of his South African work, but it also positions him as an interesting architect within the Dutch context of his day, characterized as it was by verzuiling (lit. ‘pillarization’, a form of compartmentalization along socio-political or religious lines).Pieter Simon Dijkstra (1884-1968) is regarded as a noted Protestant church designer in South Africa, but his contribution to the built environment in the Netherlands is much less well known. His life and career in the country of his birth are of interest because they are closely aligned with the religious turbulence of the period, in which the anti-revolutionary clergyman-politician Abraham Kuyper played a prominent role. The building of new Reformed churches and schools was a direct expression of the zealous determination to spread the ‘true faith’. The architecture of the new Reformed churches was often modest and restrained, influenced by Kuyper’s view that the church space should serve the ‘gathering of the faithful’ and be arranged in such a way that congregants could see and hear one other and the minister. Dijkstra, born to a clergyman father with a missionary zeal, delivered various designs in this Reformed context. Although Dijkstra grew up and trained in the northern Netherlands, Zeeland became  his main area of operation. In 1908, after time spent working in Groningen (Spijk) and Germany, Dijkstra settled in Vlissingen (Flushing) where he set up his own architectural practice. At the time Vlissingen was an internationally oriented city undergoing a radical transformation under the direction of the liberal alderman of public works, J.G. van Niftrik jr. (1889-1924). Dijkstra designed two new hall-type Reformed churches: one in Geersdijk (1910) and the Eben Haëzer church in Vlissingen (1910). There followed a remarkable inter-denominational collaboration after the English Presbyterian community’s place of worship in the St Jacob’s Church was destroyed by fire in 1911. After Dijkstra’s initial design for a simple hall church was rejected, the authoritative Catholic architect Pierre Cuypers (1827-1921) was commissioned to provide a sketch design for a small yet monumental building. Cuypers’ design for a neogothic church based on an octagonal plan was further elaborated by Dijkstra. The church was inaugurated in 1914. This unique project was followed by the Vlaswiek Reformed Church in Bovensmilde (Drenthe, 1915) and the Reformed Church in Kamperland (Noord-Beveland, 1923). The design for this robust church with corner tower and amphitheatre arrangement is in line with Kuyper’s views and foreshadows Dijkstra’s later church designs in South Africa. Dijkstra designed school buildings for the various Reformed communities in and around Vlissingen (in Koudekerke and Arnemuiden) and social housing estates, including three for the Protestant-Christian housing association Gemeenschappelijk Belang (Common Interest), partly in collaboration with P.J. Hamers (1882-1966). Among his commissions for retail spaces is the striking expressionist radio shop he designed for H.J. van der Meer en Zonen (1923 and 1926), still extant. In 1927, all out of the blue, Dijkstra decided to emigrate with his family to South Africa, where he continued to develop as a Reformed church architect. This article not only provides an assessment of his Dutch oeuvre as a prefiguration of his South African work, but it also positions him as an interesting architect within the Dutch context of his day, characterized as it was by verzuiling (lit. ‘pillarization’, a form of compartmentalization along socio-political or religious lines)

Naar een architectuur van vereenvoudiging? Victor Horta’s lezingen over Amerikaanse architectuur in de jaren twintig

The Belgian architect Victor Horta (1861-1947) spent most of the First World War in the United States. Over the course of three years, from December 1915 to January 1919, he explored how the American skyscrapers, standardized dwellings and ingenious urban planning might serve as a model for a modern, post-war Belgium. Yet Horta’s memoirs had very little to say about his discussion of American architecture or any influence his travels might have had on his post-war work. This article consequently breaks new ground in examining the various talks on the subject that Horta gave in the 1920s. Horta’s lectures actually provide a good picture of how he started to see American architecture as a model for the future. In American architectural practice, serial production, standardization and economies of scale facilitated a simplification of the design – a solution Horta also proposed for war-torn Belgium. By way of illustration, the article describes the affinity between Horta’s more classical formal language of the 1920s, as in his 1925 pavilion for the Exposition international des Arts décoratifs et industriels modernes, and the architecture of the United States. It also shows that Horta was an important proponent of American architecture in Belgium, and also played a pioneering role in the introduction of some of its defining features, such as high-rise construction.De Belgische architect Victor Horta (1861-1947) verbleef het grootste deel van de Eerste Wereldoorlog in de Verenigde Staten. Gedurende drie jaar, van december 1915 tot januari 1919, onderzocht hij daar hoe de Amerikaanse wolkenkrabbers, gestandaardiseerde woningen en ingenieuze stedenbouw als model konden dienen voor een modern, naoorlogs België. In zijn memoires was Horta echter erg summier over zijn bespreking van de Amerikaanse architectuur, en de mogelijkse invloed die zijn reis heeft gehad op zijn naoorlogs werk. Dit artikel onderzoekt daarom voor de eerste keer de verschillende lezingen die Horta in de jaren twintig over het onderwerp heeft gegeven. Horta’s voordrachten laten namelijk goed zien hoe hij de Amerikaanse architectuur begon te zien als een model voor de toekomst. Serieproductie, standaardisatie en schaalvergroting werkten in de Amerikaanse architectuurpraktijk een vereenvoudiging van ontwerp in de hand – een oplossing die Horta ook voorstelde in het door de oorlog geruïneerde België. Om dit te illustreren beschrijven de auteurs in dit artikel hoe Horta’s klassiekere vormentaal van de jaren twintig, zoals zichtbaar in zijn paviljoen voor de Exposition internationale des Arts décoratifs et industriels modernes uit 1925, verwant was aan de architectuur in de Verenigde Staten. Het toont daarnaast aan hoe Horta een belangrijke rol heeft gespeeld in het propageren van de Amerikaanse architectuur in België, en ook een pioniersrol heeft gespeeld in de introductie van enkele van haar voornaamste principes, zoals hoogbouw

Bemind maar onbekend: Landschapsarchitectuur in de periode 1965-1990

Post 65 garden and landscape architects bridged the town and country divide. They worked at various levels of scale and for all kinds of users: from private garden to industrial area and from urban design scheme to land consolidation. Using their analysis and design methods they succeeded in accommodating a wide range of functions in a spatially coherent design. Despite the extent and appeal of their production, current knowledge and appreciation of Post 65 green heritage lags behind that of the architectural heritage. This is evident from redevelopment plans for green areas and from recently delivered big-city inventory reports from which this type of heritage is largely absent. Knowledge of theory development in landscape architecture, landscape history and architectural history can help to generate greater appreciation for Post 65 green space. After all, Post 65 green heritage is not just of interest from a cultural-historical perspective. It can also contribute to the improvement of nature and the environment in a way that is in keeping with Post 65 ideas.Post 65 tuin- en landschapsarchitecten sloegen een brug tussen stad en buitengebied. Zij werkten op verschillende schaalniveaus en voor alle soorten gebruikers: van tuin tot industriegebied en van stedenbouwkundig plan tot ruilverkaveling. Ze wisten met hun analyse- en ontwerpmethoden uiteenlopende functies onder te brengen in een ruimtelijk samenhangend ontwerp. Ondanks hun grote en interessante productie blijft de huidige kennis en waardering van Post 65 groen erfgoed achter. Dit blijkt uit herontwikkelingsplannen van groengebieden en uit recent opgeleverde inventarisatierapporten van de grote steden waarin dit type erfgoed veelal ontbreekt. Kennis van theorievorming uit de landschapsarchitectuur, landschapsgeschiedenis en de architectuurgeschiedenis kan bijdragen aan een hogere waardering van Post 65 groen. Het Post 65 groen erfgoed is immers niet alleen vanuit cultuurhistorisch oogpunt interessant, maar kan ook bijdragen aan de verbetering van natuur en milieu op een wijze die past bij het Post 65 gedachtengoed.&nbsp

Beperkte kansen op een zorgeloze oude dag: Het lot van gebouwen van na 1965

Buildings completed after about 1964 cannot count on surviving into old age, however robust some of them may still be. Any building can perish, irrespective of age, structural condition or architectural quality. Once the idea that a building is in the way has taken hold, its chances of being torn down are considerable. All the more so if the building has lost its original function and been fully written off. This essayistic article takes the position that the functionalist fixation on fitness for purpose has fed through into the way existing buildings are treated and the intellectual reflection on that. Take Stewart Brand’s famous diagram. It distinguishes the various material layers of a building according to their different lifespans, yet that is no guarantee that those lifespans will be respected in practice: a building is by no means always treated justly, let alone the material lifespan of the different layers of a building. Nevertheless, for anyone devoted to the city as cultural project, there is still Aldo Rossi’s renowned theory regarding a city’s ‘permanences’ of cultural value. The lifespan problem of more recent architecture is amplified by the fact that buildings are increasingly categorized as a neutral amenity, in other words, a commodity. As such, they can be manipulated at will and without taking account of any architectural merits they may possess. Two highly regarded buildings by the architect Herman Hertzberger have struggled to survive in recent years: the Centraal Beheer offices in Apeldoorn (1968-1972) and the Ministry of Social Affairs in The Hague (1979-1990). Although both buildings were designed to be functionally flexible, that has not rendered them proof against the whims of the real estate market: the survival of both buildings is still on the line in 2023.Paradoxically, the second case study presented in this article is more hopeful, even though it concerns a building that was most certainly not designed to be adaptable. It is the office of the Kralingen water company in Rotterdam (1973-1979) by Wim Quist. While the initial idea for the extension of this building gave rise to conflict, mediation eventually produced an architecturally convincing solution acceptable to all the parties involved, including the original architect.Gebouwen die na omstreeks 1965 zijn opgeleverd, hebben niet zomaar een goede kans om oud te worden, hoe robuust ze soms ook zijn. Ieder gebouw kan namelijk kapot, ongeacht leeftijd, bouwkundige toestand of architectonische kwaliteit. Zodra het idee postvat dat een gebouw in de weg staat, is de kans dat het plat gaat aanzienlijk. Dat is des te meer het geval als het gebouw zijn oorspronkelijke functie verloren heeft en boekhoudkundig is afgeschreven. In dit essayistische artikel wordt de stelling betrokken dat de functionalistische fixatie op doelmatigheid ook heeft doorgewerkt in de omgang met bestaande gebouwen en de intellectuele reflectie daarop. Zo maakt het welbekende schema van Stewart Brand onderscheid tussen de diverse materiële lagen van een gebouw, die ieder voor zich een verschillende houdbaarheid in de tijd zouden hebben. Dat wil echter in de praktijk niet zeggen dat die houdbaarheid ook gerespecteerd wordt: lang niet altijd wordt over een gebouw in redelijkheid beschikt, laat staan dat recht zou worden gedaan aan de materiële levensduur van de verschillende lagen van een gebouw. Desondanks kan aan Aldo Rossi’s vermaarde betoog omtrent de ‘permanenties’ van culturele waarde  van de stad nog steeds gevolg worden gegeven, voor wie aan de stad als cultureel project gehecht is geraakt. Het levensduurprobleem van architectuur uit de meer recente tijd wordt nog aangescherpt doordat gebouwen meer en meer als een neutrale voorziening, oftewel een commodity, worden aangemerkt. Daarmee kan naar believen worden gemanipuleerd, zonder dat de eventuele architectonische verdiensten daarbij in het oog worden gehouden. Twee hooggewaardeerde gebouwen van architect Herman Hertzberger ondervinden in de afgelopen jaren de strijd om het bestaan aan den lijve: het kantoor voor Centraal Beheer in Apeldoorn (1968-1972) en het Ministerie van Sociale Zaken in Den Haag (1979-1990). Beide gebouwen werden functioneel elastisch ontworpen. Dat maakte echter niet dat ze bestand zijn gebleken tegen de grilligheid van de onroerendgoedmarkt: het voortbestaan van beide gebouwen staat in 2023 op het spel. Paradoxaal genoeg is de tweede in dit artikel gepresenteerde casus hoopvoller, terwijl het nota bene een gebouw betreft dat allerminst als aanpasbaar ontworpen werd. Het is het kantoor van het drinkwaterbedrijf Kralingen in Rotterdam (1973-1979) van Wim Quist. Leidde het aanvankelijke idee voor de aanpassing van dit gebouw tot conflict, door bemiddeling kwam naderhand een architectonisch overtuigende oplossing beschikbaar die aanvaardbaar was voor alle betrokken partijen, inclusief de oorspronkelijke architect.                           &nbsp