Waseda University Repository

LOWY, Christopher

49早稲田大学国際文学館ジャーナル　第 3号TypesFor the past few years, I have been thinking about Japanese cultural responses to the first decade of the AIDS cri-sis.⑴ This should be of interest to anyone working in Japanese literary and cultural spaces if only for the immense impact the crisis had on both global policy and culture. And, as I have argued elsewhere, understanding our collec-tive response to the crisis is one key to understanding our response to COVID, a topic that will only grow in importance as we continue to reflect on the year 2020.⑵ Nevertheless, there have been no extended studies on these responses, either in Japanese or English.⑶ Why? One possible reason is that few texts rise to the definition of “AIDS literature.” Monica B. Pearl defines the genre as a type of literature that, “through the mechanisms of mourning and melancholia, both forms and reveals shifting identities in response to AIDS,” with her work concentrating “on how AIDS narratives depict, construct, and often reconstruct subjectivity among a community of readers as refracted through grieving and its narrative representations.”⑷ Indeed, there is little literature from Japan that strictly adheres to Baker’s definition. You would be forgiven, then, to assume that AIDS was largely absent from fiction or art or other cultural arenas from the time, but this could not be further from the truth. In fact, between 1981, when the Asahi Shimbun boldly announced, “Bad News for Homo-lovers” (ホモ愛好者に凶報),⑸ and 1996, when highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) was introduced and AIDS became medically manageable, AIDS seemed to be on everyone’s mind.There was a wide coterie of authors, playwrights, poets, and painters for whom HIV/AIDS was shaping the cul-tural landscapes they inhabited. Matsumoto Seichō’s late novel Akai hyōgaki [Red Ice Age, 1989] was a murder-mystery steeped in conspiratorial geopolitical tensions describing the year 2005, a then near-future world where the number of AIDS patients is nearing 150,000,000 and novel forms of the disease are spreading; Ōe Kenzaburō’s Chiryōtō [Tower of Healing, 1990] imagines a world ravaged by climate change, AIDS, and “new cancers,” and describes an attempt to save humanity by moving to a second earth; Setouchi Jakuchō’s Aishi [Love and Death, 1994] tells the story of Akiko, the wife of a university professor, who contracts HIV while having an extramarital affair, and the ripple effects it has on both her life and those around her. Such fiction certainly constitutes one type of AIDS literature, and they all share something in common: while living with HIV/AIDS̶or imaginings of how to live with it in the near-future̶is a major plot-point, they are largely focused on the negative effects of AIDS on mainstream (i.e., heterosexual) society. Even when gay characters do figure into the plot (as in Jakuchō’s novel), it Some Thoughts on AIDS Literature from JapanChristopher LOWYエッセイ／Essays──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────⑴　HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a virus that attacks the immune system, while AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syn-drome) is the advanced stage of HIV infection characterized by severe immune system damage and opportunistic infections and illnesses that the body cannot fight off.⑵　Lowy, Christopher, “Shingata corona sōdō kara Nihon AIDS bungaku o kangaeru” [Reading Japanese AIDS Literature from the Corona Panic], Gendai shisō, no. 5 (2020): 184-190.⑶　There are some short studies. One recent example is the chapter in “Murakami Haruki: ‘Lexington no yūrei’̶kanōsei toshite no AIDS bungaku” [Murakami Haruki’s “Ghosts of Lexington”̶AIDS Literature as Possibility] in Takeuchi Kayo, Queer-ka suru gendai Nihon bungaku: kea, dōbotsu, katari [Queering Contemporary Japanese Literature: Care, Animals, and Narration], Seikyusha (2022).⑷　Pearl, Monica B., AIDS Literature and Gay Identity: The Literature of Loss, Routledge (2013): 1.⑸　This headline ran on July 5, 1981.50Journal of Waseda International House of Literature No.3is often in a secondary role.At the same time, there were other types of cultural responses that, even if not in line with Baker’s definition, are worth considering. At the very least they engaged with AIDS as something real, not something to be abstracted to the extreme, metaphorized (a la Sontag), or otherwise “de-gayified.” On the stage, for example, Kawamura Takeshi’s Teikoku AIDS no gyakushū [The Imperial AIDS Strikes Back, 1988], one of the first plays in Japan to address the crisis, tells the story of a vampire family and features Pest and Cholera as characters. Though clearly of a different weight and tone than, say, Kushner’s Angels in America (which premiered in 1991 but he began writing in 1988), Kawamura’s play is fully camp and queer, from the men playing onnagata roles to the sexual suggestive-ness of blood-sucking.⑹ Soon after, the artist collective Dumb Type debuted S/N (1992), the same year Furuhashi Teiji, a founding member of the group, shared his HIV-positive status with his fellow members. S/N, which counted openly gay and bisexual performers among its cast, took as its theme the challenges of living with AIDS in Japan experienced by marginalized communities such as gay men and female sex workers.⑺ Unlike Kawamura’s Teikoku, whose reach remained largely domestic, Dumb Type’s work extended far beyond Japan’s borders. In any event, both plays engaged with the virus and its effects on the body in experimental but powerful ways that resonated with the gay community and beyond.There was also literature of a type closer to Baker’s definition. In 1993, for example, Tawada Yōko won the Akutagawa Prize for The Bridegroom was a Dog. A strange story, it describes Mitsuko, a schoolteacher, who tells her students a story about a princess who promises to marry a dog that has licked her bottom clean. Shortly thereaf-ter a dog-like man reminiscent of the one in the fable appears and they begin a relationship. While much of the story is clouded in narrative obfuscation̶by using, for example, a style reminiscent of Japanese folk tales̶reality rears its head with the revelation that the father of a girl she has taken in is gay.After she took the girl under her wing, the other kids stopped bullying her openly, but there were more nasty rumors going the rounds than ever before, especially one about [her] father “swinging his hips” at the Game Center; this was an expression the junior high school boys used to refer to various things, but it had filtered down to the elementary school children, who were all using it now without knowing what it meant, and though it upset their mothers to overhear this sort of language, they didn’t understand it either, and had no one to ask. When Mitsuko first heard it from Mrs. Orita, for some reason it cracked her up, not that she knew what it meant herself, it just sounded so funny, but Mrs. Orita frowned as though she thought she was laughing at her.“Don’t you think it needs looking into, though? After all, there’s AIDS to worry about, too, you know.”⑻The reference to AIDS is striking because it cuts through the fantastical elements of the narrative and grounds us to the contemporary moment. By forcing us to consider the significance of slippages into narrative abstraction supported by (formalistic) references to fairy tales, an approach to AIDS emerges that is also found in earlier responses from Japan, namely, that of formal anachronism. This is a question I keep returning to: why use anachro-nistic form to describe contemporary content?AnachronismAnachronism is the presence of something in a text that belongs to another time. That something can be anything: a person, a name, a language, a technology, an idea, a geographical structure, even a literary form. These temporal ruptures can be divided into two large categories, namely, unintentional or intentional. You might recall that in Braveheart (1995) William Wallace (played by Mel Gibson) wears a kilt̶while the film is set in the 13th-century ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────⑹　It is interesting that the preface to the play alludes to a lesbian relationship: the printed text quotes from Carmilla (1872) by J. Sheridan Le Fanu.⑺　Neave, Dorinda (2001) “Meditations on Space and Time: The Performance Art of Japan’s Dumb Type,” Art Journal, no. 60 (2001): 91.⑻　Tawada Yoko, The Bridegroom was a Dog, trans. Margaret Mitsutani (New Directions, 2012).51早稲田大学国際文学館ジャーナル　第 3号the kilt only appears in the 16th-century. This, we can assume, was unintentional, and thus belongs to the first cate-gory.⑼ More interesting, however, is the second category.Christopher Smith, in one of the few studies on anachronism̶and about their use in Japanese literature and culture̶provides a useful framework for thinking about proleptic anachronisms (that is, the insertion of the present into the past), which he characterizes as a “collision of discourses on the archaic and the modern, the past and the present, history and current affairs.”⑽ One category of anachronism, which he calls dialogic anachronism, is rele-vant to our discussion of AIDS as it “reflexively calls attention to the presence of these different discourses as difference. It maintains the difference and distance between the past and the present, between history and the now, to create a heterotopia of eras.”⑾ The contemporary associations of the disease̶e.g., its association with “gay,” the deeply medical nature of the conversations about prevention, transmission, and treatment, the physical manifesta-tions of AIDS throughout the various stages of its progression̶creates to an almost comical level a “heterotopia of eras.” This is most effectively illustrated in the work of two different people and through an approach rooted in both formalistic and content-based anachronism.In 1992 Ishii Tatsuhiko began publishing a series of tanka about AIDS written in the literary language, utilizing both classical grammar and a classical lexicon. Anachronism of form also appears in his orthography: the Sino-graphs in his poems adhere to pre-World War II forms and, similarly, words are written following historical spelling conventions (rekishiteki kanazukai). Despite talking about clandestine sex between men at a gay sauna or the buzz of a television in the sauna’s lounge, his style is highly suggestive of 18th and 19th-century poetry. Already a  decade before Ishii began publishing his poems, the Japanese-American artist Teraoka Masami was making contemporary ukiyo-e prints critiquing the contemporary world. In 1985, and as an extension of this series, he began releasing what is today known as the AIDS Series. A haunting exploration of the AIDS crisis focused largely, though not exclusively, on female sex workers, Teraoka superimposed the crisis onto the semiotic landscape of the Edo period, creating striking images of, for example, geishas struggling to open condom wrappers (see Image 1).Image 1 : Geisha in a Bath (1987)──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────⑼　There is the chance the director was aware of its anachronistic presence but still decided Wallace would wear it. Nevertheless, its presence is not intentional in the same way as the works discussed below.⑽　Smith, Christopher, Samurai with Telephones: Anachronism in Japanese Literature, University of Michigan Press (2024): 15.⑾　Ibid, 16.52Journal of Waseda International House of Literature No.3Both Ishii and Teraoka use the past to think about the present. The Edo period̶a period in which erotic litera-ture and art, as well as sex and sexuality, flourished̶proves to be effective for exploring the impact of a disease often associated with an age of decadence and hedonism. What is it about the past that attracted this poet and painter? What is it about anachronism of both form and content that lends even greater weight to an already heavy topic? I posit two elements of anachronism that create this effectiveness: (1) intelligibility and (2) the associations and perceived distance between the present and narrative form/content. In the short amount of space remaining, I will look briefly at the issue of intelligibility.IntelligibilityBoth Ishii’s tanka and Teraoka’s ukiyo-e teeter at the edge of intelligibility. Ishii’s poetry revels in an arcanity stem-ming from bimorphic anachronism: as mentioned above, his form is difficult to read while, at the same time, the content of his poems, i.e., gay bathhouses, are difficult to understand for those unfamiliar with the culture of such spaces. Consider these three poems from his 1992 “Bathhouse” (see Image 2).⑿Image 2 : Three poems from “Bathhouse” (1992)# Romanization & English Translation, from R-L⒀15seidō no jidō doa do no tamashi mo modashite kuguru (shi o nozomugani)Bronze automatic doors every soul goes in there in silence (as if all wishing to die)16warera mina nageki no ukara surechigau mono ni kayaku no nioi kasokeshiWe are all members of a family of grief someone passes by me with a whiff of gun powder17sokobaku no kane to kagi to o hikikaenu (kono kagi ya te ni koori no gotoshi)Having exchanged a modicum of money for a key (to my palm this key feels like ice)──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────⑿　These poems are taken from “Basuhausu” [Bathhouse], first published in the coterie journal Sanzō, no. 2 (1995): 62.⒀　Translations are by Sato Hiroaki and can be found in Partings at Dawn: An Anthology of Japanese Gay Literature, ed., Stephen Miller, Gay Sunshine Press (1996).53早稲田大学国際文学館ジャーナル　第 3号Instances of classical grammar abound: nozomugani, kasokeshi, hikikaenu. Traditional Sinographs, though largely comprehensible in these three poems, appear numerous times: 靑 (cf., 青), 殘 (cf., 残), and 者 (cf., 者). Pre-war orthographic spellings such as すれちがふ (cf., すれちがう) and にほひ (cf., におい) are consistent across all 111 poems. The classical lexicon is also used: ukara and kasokeshi. These formal anachronisms combine with con-tent to result in a text bordering on unintelligible̶how many readers would, for example, associate the “whiff of gunpowder” with amyl nitrite, a popular drug among gay men outlawed in Japan since 2005?Unintelligibility stemming from anachronism is even more obvious in Teraoka’s art. Not only are the above formal anachronisms present, but this time the characters themselves (as opposed to the words they signify) are largely unreadable. In perhaps the most famous image from the AIDS Series, Geisha in a Bath (1987), a geisha opening a condom wrapper is surrounded by text in a hand pulled straight from the 18th or 19th-century (see Image 1). The content of the text is not irrelevant. It is an important element of the painting that serves as a testament to Teraoka’s vision and links it to the history of Japanese art.‘Ma nakanaka akanai... I cannot open this at all...I don’t have scissors... I hate to go and borrow scissors from next door...’ Finally she opens it with her teeth to be greeted with a peculiarly strong odor. She again speaks, ‘This could be spermicide; it’s also slimy... Oh no, this is an export model; my boyfriend won’t be able to use it!’ A sudden breeze sends condom packages flying through the air. Kondomu [condom] ga tonde [fly] yuku, yuku [go].’”⒁Formal anachronism appears in yet another way. The red characters set behind the black ones suggest the text is from a jōruri play, adding an element of performativity that might otherwise be lost. On the other hand, the words themselves blend the past and the present in interesting ways: modern condoms, of course, were not invented, while yuku̶today’s iku̶is a verb meaning both “to go [somewhere]” and “to orgasm.” (And, ominously, “to die.”)So…?Japanese responses to the AIDS crisis existed, and they existed in many forms. The fact they have yet to be studied lies in large part, I think, to the difficulty in accessing many of the most interesting texts. Ishii’s poetry and Terao-ka’s art, as we have seen, pose both linguistic and content-based challenges to many readers. Understanding how formal anachronism functions in their work to create a sense of unintelligibility while analyzing the dual-structured Edo-Tokyo landscape they create as a new space for confronting AIDS will be my task going forward. At the same time, it is important to remember that other texts, for example, Murakami Haruki’s “Lexington no yūrei” [Ghosts of Lexington, 1996], sit unread or unnoticed not because of formal anachronism but because of content. Though the words HIV or AIDS never appear in Murakami’s story it is as much about AIDS as Ishii’s tanka are. The fact that it is one of a handful of Murakami’s stories to remain untranslated̶despite it being the name of a collection that includes such well-known stories as “Tony Takitani” and “Blind Willow, Sleeping Woman”̶suggests the difficulty critics have had comprehending its intent. This is suggestive of the nature of this lacuna in literary history: we can-not approach a subject if we cannot read it, and sometimes the ability to read requires knowledge at two dimensions, at the level of form and at the level of content.──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────⒁　Link, Howard A, Waves and Plagues: The Art of Masami Teraoka, The Contemporary Museum (1988): 64.

English

Some Thoughts on AIDS Literature from Japan

SETYAWAN, Joyce Anastasia

Exploration of Humanity: Murakami’s “Samsa in Love” as Adaptation of Kafka’s The Metamorphosis

早稲田大学修士(商学)master thesi

林, 中行

Lin, Zhongxing

Japanese

リーダーの感情的・行動的アンビバレンスの正負両面の影響と交互作用 -レジリエンスによる調整効果-

真辺, 将之

MANABE, Masayuki

1早稲田大学史記要 第56巻（2025）学術機関が刊行する研究誌は一般に「紀要」と称されるが、本誌は敢えて『早稲田大学史記要』として「記要」という表記を用いた雑誌名になっている。この表記の由来について、一九六五年の本誌創刊時の記事を見ても、特に言及はないが、かつて、私がアルバイトとして歴史館の前身・大学史資料センターに勤務していた際に、常勤嘱託として長年勤務されていた方から、表記の由来について伺ったことがある。『早稲田大学百年史』編纂にかかわっていた木村毅先生が、本誌創刊当初、「この雑誌は『要』を『記』すものだから『記要』とすべきだ」と主張したという話である。真偽は定かではないが、「記」という文字の意味が「記す」というものであることは明確で、確かに「記要」がそのような意味の言葉として付されたことは間違いない。ところで、通常「紀要」と表記される場合の「紀」にはどのような意味が込められているのか。この漢字は人名以外では日常での馴染みが薄いが、『大漢和辞典』によると「紀」とは「糸筋を分ける」、すなわち整理する意を含み、さらに「しるす」という意味も持つとされる。「紀要」とは「要綱や要領を記す」ということであり、意味的には〔巻頭文〕『早稲田大学史記要』第五六巻の発刊にあたって真　辺　将　之 2早稲田大学史記要 第56巻（2025）「記要」と大差がないようにも思える。であればこそ、「紀要」のままで十分であったのではないかという疑問が浮かぶが、他方で、わざわざ「記要」に改めることに何らかの強い意思が働いていたとも推測できる。「記」と「紀」ということから思い返せば、今日「記念碑」と記されるものも、かつては「紀念碑」と表記することが多かった。「記念」「紀念」の言葉についても、どちらの表記も戦前から使用されてはいるが、どちらかといえば、「紀念」の方が多い印象を受ける。一九一九年に制定された「史跡名勝天然紀念物保存法」は、「紀」を用いている。「記念切手」も、一九二八年に昭和天皇の即位記念の切手が発売されて以降は「記念」の文字が使用されているが、それ以前は「紀念切手」であった。しかし今日記念切手を「紀念切手」と記せば、誤字だと指摘されかねないのではないか。実際、「記念」という言葉そのものについても、一九五〇年～六〇年前後の時期の辞典類には、「記念」が正しく、「紀念」は誤りと記されていることが多い。他方、石井研堂が『明治事物起源』（一九〇八年）の「記念章の始」の項目のなかで、「世俗、糸偏の紀念と書く者多く、たま〳〵記念とあると見れば、以て誤字となすに至る。然れども、記念の正字は、言偏にして糸偏に非ず」と記していることから考えると、戦前には「紀念」の方が正しいと考える人も多かったようである。石井は「記」が正しいとするが、今日中国や台湾では「紀念」の文字が一般に使用されていることを考えると、この違いは必ずしも正誤の問題ではないように思える。実際に、近年の辞典などでは、どちらが正しいという記載はあまり見られなくなっている。いずれにせよ、戦前は「紀念」が優勢であったものが、戦後には「記念」が一般的になっていくという流れであるということは間違いない。「紀要」についていえば、“Wikipedia”には、この文字を冠する雑誌として最初に刊行されたものは、一九一四年創刊の『東京帝国大学文科大学紀要』であると書かれているが（二〇二四年一一月一一日閲覧）、実際にはそれよりずっと早く一八八七年から『帝国大学紀要』理科第一冊第一号が刊行されている。また雑誌だけでなく、単行書にまで広3早稲田大学史記要 第56巻（2025）げれば、例えば、明治初期に岩倉具視が編纂した歴史書『大政紀要』や、地租改正の報告書である『府県地租改正紀要』などがあり、それ以前近世にも使用例は多くある。逆に、「記念」とは異なり、「記要」という表記が用いられた例はほとんどないようである。こうした前提を考えると、「要」を「記す」のだから、「紀要」より「記要」がふさわしい、という主張は成り立ちにくいように思える。もし木村毅先生がこの表記を提案されたとするならば、文字に明るい木村先生がそのような理由で主張をされたとは考えにくい。とすれば、意味がほぼ同じことを理解しつつ、しかし、前述したような「紀念」から「記念」へ、という時代の流れなどを読み取りながら、人々が意味を理解しやすい「記」の方がふさわしいと、あえて表記の変更を提起したのではないか。果たして真相はわからない。単なる表記の問題と片付けられるものかもしれないが、しかし「記要」とする独特の呼称が、なぜそのような表記なのかという問いを引き出し、こうした雑誌の持つ意味は何かという本誌の意義を問う契機となるのだとすれば、違う表記にしたことの持つ効果は決して⼩さくないということが言えるだろう。他にはない「記要」と称したところには、新たな名称に相応しい、他とは一線を画す雑誌を目指し、その独自性をもって早稲田大学の個性を深化させようとする強い志が込められていたのではないか。考えてみれば、本学の創設当初の名前は「東京専門学校」であった。これは、創設に関わった人々が東京大学を卒業したばかりの人々であったことに基づいているだろうと考えられる。拙著『東京専門学校の研究』（早稲田大学出版部）でも明らかにしたように、初期の東京専門学校の講義で講じられている内容は、その多くを、講師たちが東京大学で学んだ内容に依拠していた。本学が掲げた「学問の独立」の言葉の意味も、もともとは学問内容に基づくものというよりは、東京大学では英語で教授している学問を、日本語で教えることにより、「西洋の学問からの日本の学問の独立」を成し遂げるという意味であった。しかし、東京専門学校創設と時を同じくして、東京大学の学問はドイツ 4早稲田大学史記要 第56巻（2025）流の学問へと変質していき、かつての東京大学における英米流の学問を享受していた東京専門学校は、学問内容においても独自性を持つようになる。さらに、東京の中心部ではなく、当地まだ近郊の田舎であった早稲田の地に位置し、明治一四年の政変で政府を追放された大隈重信が設立した学校であることも相まって、反骨心と政治性を備えた学風が形成され、他校とは異なる個性が醸成されていった。一九〇二年に「早稲田大学」と改称した際、東京の名に代わって「早稲田」の地名を冠したのも、自らのオリジナリティを強く意識した結果であろう。現代の大学は、一方におけるグローバル化、そして他方における少子化、さらにはＡＩをはじめとする技術の飛躍的な発展のなかで、否応なく変革を迫られている。世界の大学が競争相手になり、また、世界ランキングのような形で世界中の大学が縦一列に評価されるようになりつつある。ＡＩなどのテクノロジーの進展は、これまで学問が担ってきた多くの部分を肩代わりする可能性があり、そうしたなかで学問の淘汰が進む可能性もある。こうしたなかで大学が進むべき道は自明ではない。過去は一方で改変され捨て去られていくものであるが、しかしそれと同時に、現在は過去の積み重ねの上に形成されており、かつ本学のオリジナリティのありかも、歴史を抜きにしてはありえない以上、未来を考えるために、まずは本学の現在の来歴を考える必要性も強まっていくと私は考える。グローバル化のなかで、縦一線の大学ランキングの上下にのみ心を囚われ、安易に「英語化」だけを進めることになれば、それは英米の大学と互換可能な、その下位に位置づけられるだけの何の価値もない大学に、自ら進んで変わっていくことにもつながりかねない。他の大学にない本学の価値は何なのか、あるいは大学ランキングのような縦一線の評価軸では見えてこない、本学独自の個性や魅力は何なのか、ということを打ち出す重要性が、より一層高まっていくであろう。ＡＩなど量的な処理技術が進展することで、量的分析だけでは生み出せない質的な分析や洞察の重要性が増していくのと同様に、グローバル化が進み、世界の大学の互換可能性が高まっていくなかだからこそ、5早稲田大学史記要 第56巻（2025）歴史に裏打ちされた互換不可能な個性をどう築きあげるかが、大学の将来にとって極めて大きな意味を持っていくようになると考える。こうしたなかで本記要の刊行をはじめ、歴史館の業務の持つ意義は決して軽くない。本学の歴史は、本学の財産であり、そして場合によっては軛でもありうる。どの部分を受け継ぎながら、どの部分を改めて行くのか。受け継ぐものがないのであれば、それは早稲田大学である必要はなく、そうであるならば、本学は優れた他の大学に吸収合併されてしまっても構わない存在になってしまう。過去のよい部分を受け継ぎながら、個性を磨き、早稲田にしかないものを追求していくからこそ、早稲田大学の存在意義がある。早稲田大学歴史館は、それを考える一つの大きな材料として、本学の歴史に関わる諸業務を任務とする。展示を通じて広く社会に本学の歴史を知ってもらい、また「早稲田学」などの自校史教育において、本学の特色とは何か、本学で学ぶ意味とは何かを学生たちに考える機会を与える。さらに本記要の発行や『早稲田大学百五十年史』などの年史編纂を通じて、本学の歴史の検証を続け、またアーカイブズによって本学の貴重な史料を保存・公開し、さらなる歴史研究の材料を提供する。こうした本歴史館の事業は、大学の自己点検とこれからの発展を考えるための土台作りに関わる重要な業務であり、変革の時代だからこそ、その重要性も大きいと言うことができる。人が自己紹介をする際、自らの経歴、すなわちその歩みを省いて語ることはできない。自己成長の過程においても、過去と向き合い、自らの長所と短所を理解することが成長の第一歩である。同様に、大学の在り方を論じる際にも、その来歴を省み、個性を活かしながら、どのように発展していくのかを考えていくことが不可欠である。そしてそうした個性ある大学が多数生まれることは、社会の発展につながっていく。各大学が自らの歴史を踏まえつつ、その独自の個性をどのように涵養していくべきかを探り、多様な個性を持つ大学が互いに切磋琢磨することでこそ、社 6早稲田大学史記要 第56巻（2025）会は一層の多様性と活力を得ることができる。ゆえに、多様な大学が共存することにこそ大きな意義があり、その存在が社会の豊かさを支える基盤ともなるのである。『記要』が、そうした多様性豊かな社会を築く一助として、⼩さくとも重要な参照の場となり、発展を遂げていくことを心から願ってやまない。まなべ・まさゆき（早稲田大学歴史館館長・文学学術院教授）

『早稲田大学史記要』第五六巻の発刊にあたって

佐野, 智規

SANO, Tomonori

歴史館アーカイブズにおける資料管理の概要と課題

総合人文科学研究センター活動報告(2023年4月1日~2024年3月31日)

Nakamura, Nobuo

De facto director's liability to a company under case law in Japan.

Developments in 2023 ̶ Judicial Decisions 691.　Constitutional LawX v. JapanSupreme Court Grand Bench, October 25, 2023.Case No. （Ku） 993, 202077 MINSHU 1792Summary: Article 3, paragraph （1） of the Act on Special Cases in Handling Gender Status for Persons with Gender Identity Disorder ［herein after the GID Act］, which requires the person to have “no reproductive glands” or “lost-function［ing］” glands to change the gender status, is unconstitutional under Article 13 of the Constitution.Reference: Constitution, Articles 13; Article 3, paragraph （1）, item （iv） of the Act of Special Cases in Handling Gender Status for Persons with Gender Identity DisorderMAJOR JUDICIAL DECISIONSJan.─Dec., 202370 Waseda Bulletin of Comparative Law Vol. 43Facts: Article 3 （1） of the GID Act provides that family court may make a ruling of a change in the recognition of the gender status of a person who is a Person with Gender Identity Disorder and who falls under all of the following items: A person （i） is not less than 20 years of age ［18 years after the 2022 Civil Code amendment］,（ii） is not currently married,（iii） currently has no child who is a minor,（iv） has no reproductive glands or whose reproductive glands have permanently lost function, and（v） has a body which appears to have parts that resemble the genital organs of those of the Opposite Gender. The plaintiff satisfies （i） through （iii）, but not （iv） and （v）. The Okayama Family Court and the Hiroshima High Court, Okayama Branch did not approve the plaintiff’s application on that basis.Opinion: Quashed and remanded1. Standard of review Article 13 of the Constitution provides that “all of the people shall be respected as individuals. Their right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness shall, to the extent that it does not interfere with the public welfare, be the supreme consideration in legislation and in other governmental affairs.” It is obvious that freedom not to have one’s body invaded against one’s will （hereinafter simply referred to as the “Freedom from Having the Body Invaded”） is guaranteed by the same Article as an important right related to an existence in which the personality is respected. On the other hand, given that Legal Gender is treated as one of the basic attributes of an individual in various aspects of social life, and the situation in which persons with gender identity disorder are placed is as stated above, it should be said that for a person with gender identity disorder, having the gender status under laws and regulations handled in accordance with the person’s gender identity is an important legal interest combined with an individual’s right to existence in which the personality is Developments in 2023 ̶ Judicial Decisions 71respected. This does not depend on whether or not such a person with gender identity disorder is required to undergo gonadectomy surgery as treatment. Gonadectomy is a surgery to remove the testicles or ovaries and is an intense bodily invasion that involves risk to the life or body of the person and leads to an irreversible result. Accordingly, if a person is forced to undergo such gonadectomy surgery, it should be said that it falls under a material restriction on the Freedom from Having the Body Invaded. It can be said that the Provision restricts the Freedom from Having the Body Invaded in terms of forcing a person with gender identity disorder who does not require gonadectomy surgery as treatment to undergo the same surgery in order to realize an important legal interest in having gender status under laws and regulations handled in accordance with the person’s gender identity. Such a restriction should not be allowed unless it can be said to be necessary and reasonable in light of the importance of the Freedom from Having the Body Invaded, even taking into consideration that the Provision does not directly force persons with gender identity disorder in general to undergo gonadectomy surgery. It is reasonable to understand that whether the Provision conforms to Article 13 of the Constitution as a necessary and reasonable restriction should be determined by comparing the extent to which the restriction is required for achieving the purpose of the Provision, and the content and nature of the freedom restricted and the specific manner, extent, and other factors of the restriction.2. Applying the standard（1） Purpose of the Provision It is understood that the Provision is based on considerations such as the possibility of causing confusion in society due to the occurrence of problems related to parent-child relationships if a child should be born through the reproductive function of the previous gender of a person who had received a Ruling of Change in Recognition of Gender Status, or the need to avoid a sudden change in the manner of distinguishing between men and women based on biological gender, which has been long established. However, even if the Provision were not to exist, it is extremely rare 72 Waseda Bulletin of Comparative Law Vol. 43that the problems related to parent-child relationships occur due to the fact that a person who has received a Ruling of Change in Recognition of Gender Status has a child without the person having undergone gonadectomy surgery. It is possible to resolve some of the aforementioned problems related to parent-child relationships, including whether or not a legal parent-child relationship is established or how to enter the relationship in a family register, through the interpretation of laws and regulations, legislative measures, or other means. It should be said that the need for the restriction under the Provision, which was under consideration at the time of the enactment of the Act on Special Cases, has decreased due to changes in the circumstances that were the premise of the restriction.（2） Medical knowledge concerning the provision It is understood that the purport of the enactment of the Act on Special Cases is to, by the Ruling of Change in Recognition of Gender Status, enhance the effect of treatment given to and eliminate any social disadvantage suffered by persons who have problems in their social life due to their Legal Gender still being their biological gender even though they have received the necessary treatment for gender identity disorder. At the time of such enactment, gender reassignment surgery, including gonadectomy surgery, was positioned as a treatment in the final phase of the step-by-step care approach. Thus, it can be said that the imposition of a requirement that a person requesting a Ruling of Change in Recognition of Gender Status must undergo gonadectomy surgery was reasonably relevant also from a medical perspective in that persons who had received necessary treatment for gender identity disorder were subject to the requirement. However, after the enactment of the Act on Special Cases, medical knowledge of gender identity disorder has advanced, and awareness about the diversity of the symptoms exhibited by persons with gender identity disorder and the ways in which treatment therefore should be given have become generalized. Thus, the concept of a step-by-step care approach need no longer be adopted, and what kind of physical treatment patients require as treatment for gender identity disorder has come to be regarded as depending on each individual patient. Accordingly, deeming a person to have received the necessary treatment is no longer subject to whether the person has undergone gender reassignment surgery, and we have to say Developments in 2023 ̶ Judicial Decisions 73that the imposition of the above requirement is no longer reasonably relevant from a medical perspective. It can be said that, according to the aforementioned advances in medical knowledge, the restriction on the Freedom from Having the Body Invaded under the Provision becomes one that forces a person with gender identity disorder who does not require gonadectomy surgery as treatment to make a harsh choice between two options: the person abandons the Freedom from Having the Body Invaded and accepts gonadectomy surgery as an intense bodily invasion, or the person abandons an important legal interest in having gender status under laws and regulations handled in accordance with the person’s gender identity and decides not to receive a Ruling of a Change in Recognition of Gender Status. It also should be said that the imposition of such a restriction with no reasonable relevance from a medical perspective to achieve the purpose of the Provision as stated above has become excessive, taking into additional consideration that the number of countries that do not require the loss of fertility for a change in the recognition of gender status under laws and regulations has increased.3. Conclusion Comprehensively comparing the need, which has now decreased, for the restriction on the Freedom from Having the Body Invaded under the Provision with the extent of the restriction, which has increased in severity, it cannot be said that the restriction is necessary and reasonable. Article 3 paragraph （1） Item （iv） of the GID Act is unconstitutional. The Supreme Court decision of January 23, 2019 （ruled that the provision is constitutional） is changed. This case is remanded to the prior court for further examination on the argument related to the Item （v） provision.Editorial Note:1. Standard of review The standard of review used by the Supreme Court in this case, as the Supreme Court always likes to do, is a comprehensive consideration of the necessity and reasonableness （purpose and means） of the regulation. To the Anglo-American reader, it is best to think of it as the rational basis standard. It is a standard that favors the government. Unlike the U.S., where the constitutional discourses focus where to use strict scrutiny, it is 74 Waseda Bulletin of Comparative Law Vol. 43rare for the Supreme Court of Japan to use strict scrutiny, regardless of the field. Contrast the rulings presented in the previous issue, Vol. 42 pp. 57-64, which is an exceptional case using strict scrutiny. However, the Supreme Court has recognized that the legal interest to be regulated - the interest in having one’s gender treated in accordance with one’s gender identity under the law - is an important legal one that is tied to an individual’s personal existence. In addition, the Supreme Court clearly states that Article 13 of the Constitution guarantees the Freedom from Having the Body Invaded. As a result, the Supreme Court recognized that the requirement of surgery （invasion of the body） for the realization of gender identity is a restriction of rights （In the Supreme Court’s parlance, “a harsh choice between two options.”）.2. Medical knowledge The greater significance of this decision is that it acknowledges that the GID Act relies on the concept of “gender identity disorder” that has existed since ICD-9 - that it is a “disorder” and requires hormone therapy or surgery to bring the body into conformity with gender identity - and that it is already an inappropriate idea. This is a remarkable change that has not been seen in previous cases related to the GID Act. In stating the background of its decision （not directly cited in this paper）, the Supreme Court noted that psychiatric guidelines have been revised in Japan to recognize that the symptoms exhibited by persons with gender identity disorder are diverse and that the type of physical treatment required will vary from patient to patient. It also points out that the ICD-11 now defines so-called “GID” as “gender incongruence” where the gender assigned at birth differs from the gender identity, and that it is no longer appropriate to refer to it as a “disorder.”  The Supreme Court also noted that in 2017, the European Court of Human Rights held that making reproductive incapacity a requirement for gender reassignment for gender identity conformity is contrary to the European Convention on Human Rights （Although not explicitly mentioned, it certainly appears to be A.P., Garçon and Nicot v. France, 79885/12, 52471/13 and 52596/13）. The fact that an increasing number of countries, including EU, which Developments in 2023 ̶ Judicial Decisions 75do not make loss of reproductive capacity a requirement for changing the legal gender, in addition to requiring medically unnecessary surgery, appears to be considered as a factor that increases the excessiveness of this provision.3. Remaining problems The GID Act, which relies on the concept of “gender identity disorder” since ICD-9, is highly problematic. First, for the plaintiff in this case, even if item （iv） is declared invalid, item （v） stands. He/she should have a body which appears to have parts that resembles the genital organs of those of the Opposite Gender （hereinafter “Appearance Requirement”）. Would the Appearance Requirement also be unconstitutional?  In order to achieve this requirement, the male （in the physical sense） must first have his male genitalia removed. This is clearly a bodily invasion and is within the scope of the reasoning stated by the Supreme Court in this decision. It is noted that the plaintiff in this case also applied for gender reassignment from male to female. However, the Supreme Court remanded on the grounds that the lower court had not decided on the requirement. This, the dissenting opinions of three judges points out, would be nothing more than an unnecessary trouble. The Supreme Court should have declared that item （v） was also unconstitutional, at least as long as the surgery was mandatory. In the case of women （in the physical sense）, the requirement is generally considered to have been satisfied by the enlargement of the external genitalia due to hormone therapy. Does this fall within the scope of this ruling’s reasoning? Perhaps the majority opinion postponed its decision because it did not want to go through the trouble of collecting opinions on this point. The dissenting opinions suggests that hormone therapy can be considered the same as surgery, since medically speaking, some people do not need it and it has side-effects. Next, let us consider the item （i） to （iii）. In light of the majority opinion, it is a hurdle to say that （i）-（iii） are unconstitutional. This is because, while the Supreme Court has clearly stated that freedom from bodily invasion is guaranteed by Article 13 of the Constitution, it has not stated that it is guaranteed by the Constitution with respect to the legal 76 Waseda Bulletin of Comparative Law Vol. 43interest having the gender status under laws and regulations handled in accordance with the person’s gender identity, nor has it cited any other basis. And, looking at the decision as a whole, the Supreme Court seems to be treating the physical invasion, surgery, as a particularly heavy factor to be considered. If this is true, items （i）-（iii）, which do not involve the element of physical invasion, may be considered minor infringements of legal interests, which are not certainly guaranteed by the Constitution. In his dissenting opinion, Justice Uga Katsuya regarded the legal interest having the gender status under laws and regulations handled in accordance with the person’s gender identity as a fundamental human right guaranteed by Article 13 of the Constitution, and suggests that （i）-（iii） are also questionable. In fact, he had written his dissenting opinion from such a perspective in the case where item （iii） was in question （Decision November 30, 2021, 266 SHUMIN 185）. Since legal gender treatment is linked to personal survival, Justice Uga’s view is reasonable. At the time of this writing, this act is under consideration for revision. However, the coalition government of the Liberal Democratic Party and New Komeito is not expected to proceed smoothly with the removal of （iv）, let alone （v） requirement, due to strong opposition from the conservative faction. Some have argued that instead of removing （iv） or （v）, another requirement should be established. Whatever the requirement, it is unlikely that a requirement that satisfies the extreme right would satisfy the legal interest in aligning gender identity with legal gender. On the other hand, among the opposition parties, it is noteworthy that the Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan is proposing the deletion of item （iii） in addition to （iv） and （v）.

MAJOR JUDICIAL DECISIONS: 1. Constitutional Law

Developments in 2023 ̶ Academic Societies 13910.　Philosophy of LawThe Japan Association of Legal Philosophy held its 2023 Annual Conference at Doshisha University on 4-5 November 2023.Reports on Individual Themes:A:（1） “Justification of ‘Uncivil Disobedience’ by C. Delmas’s Natural Duty of Justice” Keisuke Yamamoto （Part-Time Lecturer, Seisen University）（2） “lex naturalis and ius naturale” Kenji Hirate （Professor, Gifu Kyoritsu University）B:（1） “On Regulation of Freedom of Expression: Concerning the Role of the Government” Akihiro Oe （Doctoral Course Student, University of Tokyo）（2） “The Significance of “Animal Welfare”: EU Farm Animal Welfare Legislation in Animal Law” Moe Honjo （Associate Professor, Nagasaki University）Workshops:Group 1: “Sex, Reproduction, and Law”（1） “Introductory Remarks on the Purpose of the Project” Hirono Ikeda （Professor, Yamagata University）（2） “Contractualization of Marriage and the Future of Child-Rearing Institutions” Kazuki Matsuda （Research Associate, Waseda University）（3） “Feminist Theories of the Body and Legal Institutions: Ashley X’s Case Study as a Clue” Yoshie Ogumi （Lecturer, Doshisha University）（4） “Yet Another, or Trans Justice Theory” Rokuro Ayabe （Assistant Professor, Nagoya College）140 Waseda Bulletin of Comparative Law Vol. 43Group 2: “Wherein Lies the Value of Diversity?”（1） “Introductory Remarks on the Purpose of the Project” Fumihiko Ishiyama （Professor, Chuo University）（2） “Diversity over Disability/Gender: Thinking from the Side of the Boundary Zones Where it Sticks out of Society” Takehiko Yoshioka （Professor, Saga University）（3） “The Possibilities and Limits of Diversity: a Multiculturalist Perspective” Seiko Urayama （Associate Professor, Seijo University）（4） “Diversity （Concept, Value, and Design）” Yoshiki Wakayama （Professor, Gakushuin University）Group 3: “Legal Philosophy and Positive Law/Legal Practice”（1） “Introductory Remarks on the Purpose of the Project” Yachiko Yamada （Professor, Chuo University）（2） “Through the Differentiation and the Maturation of Legal Thinking” Ryosuke Kikuchi （Associate Professor, Kyoto University）（3） “Are We Talking Past Each Other That Much?: the Relationship of Contemporary Justice Theory and Positive Law/Legal Practice” Kotaro Yonemura （Professor, Rikkyo University）（4） “The Distance Between Legal Philosophy and Positive Law/Legal Practice” Yachiko Yamada （Professor, Chuo University） （5） Comments Hiroshi Kamemoto （Professor, Meiji University） Itaru Shimazu （Emeritus Professor, Chiba University）Group 4: “Relational Egalitarianism”（1） “Introductory Remarks on the Purpose of the Project” Masami Sumiyoshi （Professor, Aoyama Gakuin University）（2） “The Contemporary Significance of the Debate over ’Distributive’ versus ‘Relational’ Egalitarianism: How Should Relational Egalitarianism Confront ‘Distributive Justice’?” Yuichiro Mori （Associate Professor, Hokkaido University）（3） “Doubts Towards Relational Egalitarianism from a Distributive Egalitarian” Daisuke Fujioka （Associate Professor, Asia University）Developments in 2023 ̶ Academic Societies 141（4） “A Defence of Relational Egalitarianism Divorced from Republicanism” Akira Inoue （Professor, University of Tokyo）Group 5: “The Role of Professionals: in Connection with Contemporary Democratic Theory”（1） “Introductory Remarks on the Purpose of the Project” Takehiro Ohya （Professor, Keio University）（2） “Professionals in Contemporary Governance” Naoya Nagaishi （Associate Professor, University of Tokyo）（3） “Professionals in Democracy” Yoshinori Seki （Professor, Shinshu University）（4） Comments Yo Matsuo （Professor, Nagoya University）Group 6: “The Problem of History in Legal Philosophy”（1） “Introductory Remarks on the Purpose of the Project” Ryuichi Nakayama （Professor, Osaka University）（2） “Between the Universal and the Particular: The Merits and Demerits of Kokutai in the Successions of Law” Taku Morimoto （Professor, Tohoku University of Community Service and Science）（3） “What It Means to Think about Law in East Asia” Yasunori Sugawara （Professor, Hokkai-Gakuen University）（4） “The Significance and Role of the Historical Content of Legal Thought in Western Legal Education: the ‘History of Legal Thought’ for What?” Shintaro Suzuki （Aichi Gakuin University）（5） “The Past and Future of Education and Research in the History of Legal Thought” Yasufumi Suzuki （Lecturer, Momoyama Gakuin University）11.　Comparative LawI.　The Japan Society of Comparative Law held its General Meeting and 

ACTIVITIES OF ACADEMIC SOCIETIES: 10. Philosophy of Law

TABLE OF CONTENTSArticleConsent in Smart Societies Ruben E. Rodriguez Samudio   1De facto director’s liability to a company under case law in Japan. Nobuo Nakamura   23Developments in 2023Major Legislation & Treaties1. Constitutional Law    452. Family Law    483. Law of Civil Procedure and Bankruptcy    544. Criminal Law and Procedure    585. Labor / Social Security Law    636. International Law and Organizations    66WasedaBulletinofComparativeLawVolume 43 Annual Report 2023Major Judicial Decisions1. Constitutional Law    692. Administrative Law    773. Family Law    854. Law of Civil Procedure and Bankruptcy    955. Criminal Law and Procedure    1006. Commercial Law    1037. Labor Law / Social Security Law    1078. International Law and Organizations    112Activities of Academic Societies1. Constitutional Law    1232. Administrative Law    1253. Law of Property and Obligations    1274. Family Law    1295. Law of Civil Procedure and Bankruptcy    1306. Criminal Law and Procedure    1317. Commercial Law    1348. Legal History    1359. Sociology of Law    13710. Philosophy of Law    13911. Comparative Law    14112. International Law and Organizations    149Activities of the Institute in 2023    155Members of the Institute    167

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