RILM:  A history of the instrument, with information about the construction and repertoire, and particular reference to performance techniques. The derivation of the term  mandolin  is discussed, as are the differences between the mandolino and the Neapolitan mandolin

Sparks, Paul

Tyler, James

Keck Graduate Institute

Performance Practice Review
Volume 9
Number 2 Fall Article 5
The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance
(Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries)
James Tyler
Paul Sparks
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Part of the Music Practice Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at Claremont at Scholarship @ Claremont. It has been accepted for inclusion in
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Tyler, James and Sparks, Paul (1996) "The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance (Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries)," Performance
Practice Review: Vol. 9: No. 2, Article 5. DOI: 10.5642/perfpr.199609.02.05
Available at: http://scholarship.claremont.edu/ppr/vol9/iss2/5
Performing Historical Instruments
The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance
(Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries)
James Tyler and Paul Sparks
From at least the middle of the 15th century a small pear-shaped,
round-backed instrument (which would develop into the mandolin in
the 16th century) was called chitarra and chitarino (Italy), guittara
(Spain), quitare, quinterne, and guisterne (France), gyterne (Eng-
land), and Quintern (Germany). By the 16th century most of these
terms were applied to the small, four-course guitar, and it became
customary to refer to the early mandolin type as the mandola (Italy)
or mandore (France).
The term mandolino was used in Italy from the mid-17th century, as
was mandola, the latter by some writers (but by no means all), to in-
dicate a slightly larger and lower pitched instrument of the same fa-
mily. In Italy, mandolino continues to be used to the present day to
refer to both the six-course "Milanese" mandolin (the modern des-
cendant of the 17-18th century, gut-strung instrument), and the four-
course, metal-strung "Neapolitan" mandolin (developed in the mid-
18th century). The term mandore continued to be used by the
French until just after the middle of the 17th century, when the
French style of instrument (with its variant tuning) became obsolete.
The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 167
Sixteenth Century
From the 16th century onwards, the construction of the mandolin de-
fines it as a small, treble member of the lute family. Like the lute, its
back was rounded, its soundboard completely flat. Its neck had mo-
vable, tied-on, gut frets. An intricately patterned rosette is either
carved into or separately constructed and glued into the soundboard.
At first it had four courses of strings, but fifth and sixth courses were
added in the 17th century. Gut strings were the norm, although oc-
casional references to metal strings appear in the late 18th century.
Seventeenth Century
In Italy tuning indications first occurred in the mid-17th century,
when e'e'- a'a'- d"d"- g"g" became standard, with bb and gg
sometimes added for a fifth and sixth course. The six-course tuning
continues to the present day as that of the "Milanese" mandolin.
The typical tuning of the French counterpart (mandore) was c'c' -
g'g' - c"c" - g"g" (sometimes with e"e" or/"/" instead of g"g").
Single courses were common for the French type, and there were
other tunings, as well as models with lower pitches.1
Eighteenth Century
The technique for the early gut-strung mandolin was similar to that
of the lute. The strings were plucked with the fingers of the right
hand. Tablatures and other sources show that this was still the stan-
dard technique in the era of Vivaldi and his contemporaries. In the
mid-18th century with the arrival of the new metal-strung "Neapoli-
tan" type of mandolin, which was especially designed for plectrum-
playing, players of the older type instrument began to employ a simi-
lar plectrum technique.2
The finger-style mandolin of the baroque era not only has a conside-
rable repertory of solo music with continuo accompaniment, but was
used frequently in chamber music ensembles and in opera and ora-
torio orchestras. Many elaborate mandolin obbligato parts survive in
1
 For further details see James Tyler, 'The Mandore in the 16th and 17th
Centuries," Early Music 9 (1981), 23-24.
^ James Tyler and Paul Sparks, The Early Mandolin (Oxford: Oxford Univ.
Press, 1989), 38-39.
168 James Tyler and Paul Sparks
Figure 1. Mandolino by Antonio Stradivari
Cremona, 1680 (Great Britain,
Collection of Christopher Challen)
The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 169
Figure 2. An Eighteenth-Century Neapolitan mandolin,
reproduced from the Methode... de mandoline
by Sr. Leone de Naples (Paris, 1768)
£ n dcubtant Us proportions
ma'wen.eU faira une itdettJ
fpojiticn. n.-itttreltieIfi
parfatiemenc r-epuli£r&
J'*?n flute C
Son nalurel A
Son ar&entin £
170 James Tyler and Paul Sparks
such works as Carlo Cesarini's oratorio Ismaele (1695), A. Scarlat-
ti's cantata A battaglia pensieri (1699), Francesco Conti's opera Ga-
latea (1719), Vivaldi's oratorio Juditha triumphans (1716), Fux's
opera Diana (1717), and Handel's oratorio Alexander Balus (1748),
to name but a few.3
The instrument is frequently suggested as an alternative to the violin,
flute, or oboe in publications of solo sonatas- Gaetano Boni's Diver-
timenti. . . Op. 2 (cl725) and Roberto Valentini's Sonate . . . Op. 12
(1730) are two examples. Its most familiar role today is as a solo
instrument in the popular and appealing concertos of Vivaldi and
Hasse.4
Since baroque composers employed the gut-strung, finger-style man-
dolin with surprising frequency, and in a wide variety of uses, it is
important to understand the nature of this instrument, and not
confuse it with the later, metal-strung, plectrum-style instrument,
which, despite its very different character and timbre, is frequently
used as a substitute for the original instrument in today's perfor-
mances of this repertory. The Neapolitan instrument acquired a
large repertory of its own during the later 18th century, including
four pieces by Beethoven, a concerto by Hummel, and works by
Barbella, Prota, de Majo, Piccinni, and Sacchini.5
Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
After 1815 both types of mandolin fell into disuse, except in Italy
where they survived as street instruments. In Naples cl835 the indi-
genous four-course mandolin was extensively redesigned by
Pasquale Vinaccia (with deeper bowl, larger resonating chamber,
raised fingerboard, extension to 17 frets, machine heads, high-ten-
sion steel strings, and tortoise-shell plectrum). The instrument
acquired a louder and much brighter tone than any previous mando-
lin. This new Neapolitan mandolin became the dominant type in
Italy from the 1860s and achieved worldwide popularity by the
3
 Tyler and Sparks, Early Mandolin, 27-28.
4
 Ibid., 31-33.
5
 Paul Sparks, The Classical Mandolin (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995),
and Tyler and Sparks, Early Mandolin.
The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 171
Figure 3. Edouard Mezzacapo (d. 1942) and his
quartet, photographed during the 1890s
(reproduced from Mandolin Memories
by Samuel Adelstein, San Francisco, 1905).
172 James Tyler and Paul Sparks
Figure 4. Silvio Ranieri (1882-1956) playing an
Embergher mandolin (photograph
courtesy of Henri Gamblin).
The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 173
1890s. Further modifications were introduced by Raffaele Calace of
Naples and Luigi Embergher of Rome.
In mandolin music composed between 1870 and 1940 the idiomatic
Italian style of tremolo playing—alternate down A and up v strokes,
performed as rapidly as possible with the plectrum to produce
sustained notes—was almost universally used, although rarely no-
tated in full. In the works of Carlo Munier, Raffaele Calace, Silvio
Ranieri, and their contemporaries, all slurred passages and single
notes of medium or long duration (such as quarter notes in an allegro
movement, or 8th notes in an andante) are intended to be played
tremolo, unless marked with a staccato dot (see Example 1).
Example 1.
Andante
written
played iJULLU
tta.tt
This means of sustaining enabled mandolinists to perform violin mu-
sic, as well as their own compositions. In Germany and Austria,
however, constant tremolo technique was deprecated by many mu-
sicians, who regarded the mandolin as a Teutonic relative of the lute,
and played almost all notes with a single attack. This German style
is appropriate for the mandolin parts in Mahler's symphonies,
Schoenberg's Serenade and Variations for Orchestra, and Webern's
Five Orchestral Pieces, where tremolo is specifically marked when
required. In recent decades composers have usually given explicit
instructions regarding tremolo to avoid ambiguity.
Shortly before 1900 virtuoso Italian and American mandolinists
(such as Leopoldo Francia and Samuel Siegel) developed more
advanced playing techniques, especially "Duo Style," in which a
slow tremolo melody was combined with a quicker plucked line,
greatly increasing the potential of the unaccompanied mandolin (see
Example 2).
174 James Tyler and Paul Sparks
Figure 5. Raffaele Calace (1863-1934) and members
of the Orchestra sinfonica Takei in Tokyo,
January 1925 (photograph courtesy of the
Japan Mandolin Union)
The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 175
Example 2.
written
played
"Trio" and "Quartet Style" required tremolo simultaneously on three
or four courses, creating sustained homophonic textures similar to
the vox humana stop on an organ. Scordatura was also used by
many concert performers (a popular tuning being g bb d' f a' a' e"
e"), enriching the mandolin's harmonic language with six-note
chords on four courses. Because of the increased string tension, or-
naments are difficult to articulate on a modern mandolin if attempted
entirely with the left hand, as on the guitar; notes of very short du-
ration can be hammered, pulled, or produced with a glissando, but
most players give a plectrum stroke to each note of an ornament, in
the interest of clarity.
Plucked string orchestras (often called Zupforchesters or Estudian-
Unas), which use all the members of the mandolin family, are popu-
lar throughout the world, especially in Japan and Germany. They
consist of first and second mandolins, mandolas (either octave
mandolas, tuned an octave below the mandolin, or tenor mandolas,
tuned like the viola), and mandocellos (tuned like the cello), as well
as guitars. These are also used in the two standard quartet forms: the
"Classical Quartet" (two mandolins, tenor mandola, and mandocello,
the plucked equivalent of the string quartet) and the "Romantic
Quartet" (two mandolins, octave mandola, and guitar). The latter is
more commonly adopted (e.g. three quartets by Munier). The liuto
moderno—a large Neapolitan mandolin similar to the mandocello,
with an added fifth course tuned to e'—often appears in works by
Calace, indisputably the greatest virtuoso ever on this instrument.
The mandolin frequently appears in an orchestral context, notably in
works by Boulez (Pli selon pit, Eclat), Stravinsky (Le Rossignol,
Agon), and some twenty compositions by Henze. It produces a small
176 James Tyler and Paul Sparks
but penetrating sound which can be clearly heard in a symphonic
context, provided that it is played with a stiff plectrum and advanta-
geously situated on the platform, and that the orchestral scoring is
sensitive. For general orchestral work, an instrument with 19 frets is
sufficient, players rarely encountering anything above the b'" in
Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet and Gerhard's Concert for §, although
many pieces from the solo repertoire require up to 29 frets (to a"").
The mandolin has also proven successful in non-classical music, es-
pecially since 1939, when it was introduced into American bluegrass
by Bill Monroe.6
Flat-back mandolins, above all the carved back and top models ma-
nufactured by the Gibson Company, have a crisp and punchy attack
with few high harmonics (more amenable to electronic amplification
than round back mandolins), and are especially suitable for this type
of music.
6
 Jack Tottle, Bluegrass Mandolin (New York, 1975).
The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 177
Figure 6. A Gibson F-5 mandolin, made in 1924
(photograph by Trip Savory, courtesy
of Mandolin Central, Siler City, NC


English

The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance (Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries)

Scholarship@Claremont

Performance Practice ReviewVolume 9Number 2 Fall Article 5The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance(Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries)James TylerPaul SparksFollow this and additional works at: http://scholarship.claremont.edu/pprPart of the Music Practice CommonsThis Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at Claremont at Scholarship @ Claremont. It has been accepted for inclusion inPerformance Practice Review by an authorized administrator of Scholarship @ Claremont. For more information, please contactscholarship@cuc.claremont.edu.Tyler, James and Sparks, Paul (1996) "The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance (Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries)," PerformancePractice Review: Vol. 9: No. 2, Article 5. DOI: 10.5642/perfpr.199609.02.05Available at: http://scholarship.claremont.edu/ppr/vol9/iss2/5Performing Historical InstrumentsThe Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance(Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries)James Tyler and Paul SparksFrom at least the middle of the 15th century a small pear-shaped,round-backed instrument (which would develop into the mandolin inthe 16th century) was called chitarra and chitarino (Italy), guittara(Spain), quitare, quinterne, and guisterne (France), gyterne (Eng-land), and Quintern (Germany). By the 16th century most of theseterms were applied to the small, four-course guitar, and it becamecustomary to refer to the early mandolin type as the mandola (Italy)or mandore (France).The term mandolino was used in Italy from the mid-17th century, aswas mandola, the latter by some writers (but by no means all), to in-dicate a slightly larger and lower pitched instrument of the same fa-mily. In Italy, mandolino continues to be used to the present day torefer to both the six-course "Milanese" mandolin (the modern des-cendant of the 17-18th century, gut-strung instrument), and the four-course, metal-strung "Neapolitan" mandolin (developed in the mid-18th century). The term mandore continued to be used by theFrench until just after the middle of the 17th century, when theFrench style of instrument (with its variant tuning) became obsolete.The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 167Sixteenth CenturyFrom the 16th century onwards, the construction of the mandolin de-fines it as a small, treble member of the lute family. Like the lute, itsback was rounded, its soundboard completely flat. Its neck had mo-vable, tied-on, gut frets. An intricately patterned rosette is eithercarved into or separately constructed and glued into the soundboard.At first it had four courses of strings, but fifth and sixth courses wereadded in the 17th century. Gut strings were the norm, although oc-casional references to metal strings appear in the late 18th century.Seventeenth CenturyIn Italy tuning indications first occurred in the mid-17th century,when e'e'- a'a'- d"d"- g"g" became standard, with bb and ggsometimes added for a fifth and sixth course. The six-course tuningcontinues to the present day as that of the "Milanese" mandolin.The typical tuning of the French counterpart (mandore) was c'c' -g'g' - c"c" - g"g" (sometimes with e"e" or/"/" instead of g"g").Single courses were common for the French type, and there wereother tunings, as well as models with lower pitches.1Eighteenth CenturyThe technique for the early gut-strung mandolin was similar to thatof the lute. The strings were plucked with the fingers of the righthand. Tablatures and other sources show that this was still the stan-dard technique in the era of Vivaldi and his contemporaries. In themid-18th century with the arrival of the new metal-strung "Neapoli-tan" type of mandolin, which was especially designed for plectrum-playing, players of the older type instrument began to employ a simi-lar plectrum technique.2The finger-style mandolin of the baroque era not only has a conside-rable repertory of solo music with continuo accompaniment, but wasused frequently in chamber music ensembles and in opera and ora-torio orchestras. Many elaborate mandolin obbligato parts survive in1 For further details see James Tyler, 'The Mandore in the 16th and 17thCenturies," Early Music 9 (1981), 23-24.^ James Tyler and Paul Sparks, The Early Mandolin (Oxford: Oxford Univ.Press, 1989), 38-39.168 James Tyler and Paul SparksFigure 1. Mandolino by Antonio StradivariCremona, 1680 (Great Britain,Collection of Christopher Challen)The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 169Figure 2. An Eighteenth-Century Neapolitan mandolin,reproduced from the Methode... de mandolineby Sr. Leone de Naples (Paris, 1768)£ n dcubtant Us proportionsma'wen.eU faira une itdettJfpojiticn. n.-itttreltieIfiparfatiemenc r-epuli£r&J'*?n flute CSon nalurel ASon ar&entin £170 James Tyler and Paul Sparkssuch works as Carlo Cesarini's oratorio Ismaele (1695), A. Scarlat-ti's cantata A battaglia pensieri (1699), Francesco Conti's opera Ga-latea (1719), Vivaldi's oratorio Juditha triumphans (1716), Fux'sopera Diana (1717), and Handel's oratorio Alexander Balus (1748),to name but a few.3The instrument is frequently suggested as an alternative to the violin,flute, or oboe in publications of solo sonatas- Gaetano Boni's Diver-timenti. . . Op. 2 (cl725) and Roberto Valentini's Sonate . . . Op. 12(1730) are two examples. Its most familiar role today is as a soloinstrument in the popular and appealing concertos of Vivaldi andHasse.4Since baroque composers employed the gut-strung, finger-style man-dolin with surprising frequency, and in a wide variety of uses, it isimportant to understand the nature of this instrument, and notconfuse it with the later, metal-strung, plectrum-style instrument,which, despite its very different character and timbre, is frequentlyused as a substitute for the original instrument in today's perfor-mances of this repertory. The Neapolitan instrument acquired alarge repertory of its own during the later 18th century, includingfour pieces by Beethoven, a concerto by Hummel, and works byBarbella, Prota, de Majo, Piccinni, and Sacchini.5Nineteenth and Twentieth CenturiesAfter 1815 both types of mandolin fell into disuse, except in Italywhere they survived as street instruments. In Naples cl835 the indi-genous four-course mandolin was extensively redesigned byPasquale Vinaccia (with deeper bowl, larger resonating chamber,raised fingerboard, extension to 17 frets, machine heads, high-ten-sion steel strings, and tortoise-shell plectrum). The instrumentacquired a louder and much brighter tone than any previous mando-lin. This new Neapolitan mandolin became the dominant type inItaly from the 1860s and achieved worldwide popularity by the3 Tyler and Sparks, Early Mandolin, 27-28.4 Ibid., 31-33.5 Paul Sparks, The Classical Mandolin (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995),and Tyler and Sparks, Early Mandolin.The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 171Figure 3. Edouard Mezzacapo (d. 1942) and hisquartet, photographed during the 1890s(reproduced from Mandolin Memoriesby Samuel Adelstein, San Francisco, 1905).172 James Tyler and Paul SparksFigure 4. Silvio Ranieri (1882-1956) playing anEmbergher mandolin (photographcourtesy of Henri Gamblin).The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 1731890s. Further modifications were introduced by Raffaele Calace ofNaples and Luigi Embergher of Rome.In mandolin music composed between 1870 and 1940 the idiomaticItalian style of tremolo playing—alternate down A and up v strokes,performed as rapidly as possible with the plectrum to producesustained notes—was almost universally used, although rarely no-tated in full. In the works of Carlo Munier, Raffaele Calace, SilvioRanieri, and their contemporaries, all slurred passages and singlenotes of medium or long duration (such as quarter notes in an allegromovement, or 8th notes in an andante) are intended to be playedtremolo, unless marked with a staccato dot (see Example 1).Example 1.Andantewrittenplayed iJULLUtta.ttThis means of sustaining enabled mandolinists to perform violin mu-sic, as well as their own compositions. In Germany and Austria,however, constant tremolo technique was deprecated by many mu-sicians, who regarded the mandolin as a Teutonic relative of the lute,and played almost all notes with a single attack. This German styleis appropriate for the mandolin parts in Mahler's symphonies,Schoenberg's Serenade and Variations for Orchestra, and Webern'sFive Orchestral Pieces, where tremolo is specifically marked whenrequired. In recent decades composers have usually given explicitinstructions regarding tremolo to avoid ambiguity.Shortly before 1900 virtuoso Italian and American mandolinists(such as Leopoldo Francia and Samuel Siegel) developed moreadvanced playing techniques, especially "Duo Style," in which aslow tremolo melody was combined with a quicker plucked line,greatly increasing the potential of the unaccompanied mandolin (seeExample 2).174 James Tyler and Paul SparksFigure 5. Raffaele Calace (1863-1934) and membersof the Orchestra sinfonica Takei in Tokyo,January 1925 (photograph courtesy of theJapan Mandolin Union)The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 175Example 2.writtenplayed"Trio" and "Quartet Style" required tremolo simultaneously on threeor four courses, creating sustained homophonic textures similar tothe vox humana stop on an organ. Scordatura was also used bymany concert performers (a popular tuning being g bb d' f a' a' e"e"), enriching the mandolin's harmonic language with six-notechords on four courses. Because of the increased string tension, or-naments are difficult to articulate on a modern mandolin if attemptedentirely with the left hand, as on the guitar; notes of very short du-ration can be hammered, pulled, or produced with a glissando, butmost players give a plectrum stroke to each note of an ornament, inthe interest of clarity.Plucked string orchestras (often called Zupforchesters or Estudian-Unas), which use all the members of the mandolin family, are popu-lar throughout the world, especially in Japan and Germany. Theyconsist of first and second mandolins, mandolas (either octavemandolas, tuned an octave below the mandolin, or tenor mandolas,tuned like the viola), and mandocellos (tuned like the cello), as wellas guitars. These are also used in the two standard quartet forms: the"Classical Quartet" (two mandolins, tenor mandola, and mandocello,the plucked equivalent of the string quartet) and the "RomanticQuartet" (two mandolins, octave mandola, and guitar). The latter ismore commonly adopted (e.g. three quartets by Munier). The liutomoderno—a large Neapolitan mandolin similar to the mandocello,with an added fifth course tuned to e'—often appears in works byCalace, indisputably the greatest virtuoso ever on this instrument.The mandolin frequently appears in an orchestral context, notably inworks by Boulez (Pli selon pit, Eclat), Stravinsky (Le Rossignol,Agon), and some twenty compositions by Henze. It produces a small176 James Tyler and Paul Sparksbut penetrating sound which can be clearly heard in a symphoniccontext, provided that it is played with a stiff plectrum and advanta-geously situated on the platform, and that the orchestral scoring issensitive. For general orchestral work, an instrument with 19 frets issufficient, players rarely encountering anything above the b'" inProkofiev's Romeo and Juliet and Gerhard's Concert for §, althoughmany pieces from the solo repertoire require up to 29 frets (to a"").The mandolin has also proven successful in non-classical music, es-pecially since 1939, when it was introduced into American bluegrassby Bill Monroe.6Flat-back mandolins, above all the carved back and top models ma-nufactured by the Gibson Company, have a crisp and punchy attackwith few high harmonics (more amenable to electronic amplificationthan round back mandolins), and are especially suitable for this typeof music.6 Jack Tottle, Bluegrass Mandolin (New York, 1975).The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance 177Figure 6. A Gibson F-5 mandolin, made in 1924(photograph by Trip Savory, courtesyof Mandolin Central, Siler City, NC

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The Mandolin: Its Structure and Performance (Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries)

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