Honey continues to be the most studied bee product, with 60% of articles addressing
this thematic and, more specifically, its biological properties. Only one article
was focused on the effect of heavy metals, pesticides, and antibiotic residues on the quality
of honey, and only one article had the honey of the African stingless bee Meliponula
ferruginea as its study objective [...].info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Miguel, Maria da Graça

Foods

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Honey continues to be the most studied bee product, with 60% of articles addressing this thematic [...

Maria Graça Miguel

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Editorial to Special Issue—Composition and Biological Properties of Bee Products

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Citation: Graça Miguel, M. Editorialto Special Issue—Composition andBiological Properties of Bee Products.Foods 2022, 11, 608. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11040608Received: 17 January 2022Accepted: 17 February 2022Published: 20 February 2022Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutralwith regard to jurisdictional claims inpublished maps and institutional affil-iations.Copyright: © 2022 by the author.Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.This article is an open access articledistributed under the terms andconditions of the Creative CommonsAttribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).foodsEditorialEditorial to Special Issue—Composition and BiologicalProperties of Bee ProductsMaria Graça MiguelMediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development (MED), Faculdade de Ciências eTecnologia, Departamento de Química e Farmácia, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas,8005-139 Faro, Portugal; mgmiguel@ualg.ptHoney continues to be the most studied bee product, with 60% of articles addressingthis thematic [1–6] and, more specifically, its biological properties [1–4]. Only one articlewas focused on the effect of heavy metals, pesticides, and antibiotic residues on the qualityof honey [5], and only one article had the honey of the African stingless bee Meliponulaferruginea as its study objective [6]. Bee pollen [7,8], cerumen [6], royal jelly and dronebrood [9], and propolis [6,10] were also addressed and, once again, with studies focusingon the biological properties [6,8–10].Scripcă and Amarici [2] studied the effect of heavy metals, pesticides, and antibioticresidues on the quality of honey. For this study, the authors [2] used the following Romanianhoneys: black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), rapeseed (Brassica napus), dandelion (Taraxacumofficinale), mint (Mentha spicata), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), buckwheat (Fagopyrumesculentum), raspberry (Rubus idaeus), and meadow honey. Despite the ban of antibioticresidues in honey, the results obtained showed that antibiotic residue incidence was 25%,with nitrofurantoin present at the highest concentration in mint honey (5.528 ng/g). Incontrast, meadow honeys were free from antibiotics, and the lowest antibiotic concentration(0.2 ng/g) was found in raspberry and black locust honeys. The lowest pesticide contentwas also found in raspberry and meadow honeys, maybe because they are coming from wildareas without the pressure of pesticide and fertilizer utilization in crops. Pesticide residueswere found in 68% of samples, but, in all cases, the presence of these pesticide residues waslower than the maximum residue limits (MRLs) required by European legislation.Antioxidant [1,2,4], antimicrobial [2,3], and anti-inflammatory activities [2] were alsoreported for honey samples from diverse geographical and botanical origins. Boutoubet al. [4] reported that the capacity of seven honey samples of Euphorbia origin from Moroccofor scavenging the free radicals nitric oxide (•NO), superoxide anion radicals (O•−), and2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) could be attributed to the phenolic fraction sincethey presented better activity after separating these secondary metabolites from the honey.In contrast, Alevia et al. [2] found higher antioxidant activity of raw honeys from Spain thanthe methanolic extracts. Moreover, the digests also presented higher antioxidant activitythan the extracts. The inhibition of several enzyme (acetylcholinesterase, tyrosinase, lipoxy-genase, xanthine oxidase, and hyaluronidase) activities was also evaluated in Moroccan [4]and Spanish honeys, respectively [2], as well as in the respective aqueous or methanolicextracts, and, in both cases, the activities were better in the extracts. Starowicz et al. [1]demonstrated a relationship between the browning index, color, total phenolics, and an-tioxidant activity of monofloral (acacia, buckwheat, heather, and linden) and multifloralhoneys from Poland. The results obtained permitted establishing a correlation betweenthe brown pigments and the antioxidant activity. They also demonstrated that the brownpigments appear after a Maillard reaction and melanoidin formation, even in unheatedPolish-originated honeys. Much interesting was the link found by the authors [1] betweenthe total phenols and the formation of melanoidins in Polish honeys.Foods 2022, 11, 608. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11040608 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foodsFoods 2022, 11, 608 2 of 4All Spanish samples (honeys and digested honeys) showed antimicrobial activityagainst Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus mutans,Pseudomona aeruginosa, and one yeast (Candida albicans). Nevertheless, the digested honeysshowed higher antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and L. monocytogenes. According tothese results, the authors [2] pointed out the positive role of honey in the human body afterthe digestion process. On the other hand, the methanolic extracts (obtained from honeys)could be used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals due to their higher anti-hyaluronidaseactivity in comparison to the raw honeys.Currently, the resistance of microorganisms to antibiotics is rising and constitutes amajor health problem. This resistance seems to be correlated to the formation of biofilmby bacteria [3]. For this reason, the authors investigated the antibacterial and antibiofilmactivity of three Hungarian monofloral honeys (black locust, linden, and sunflower) againstcommon respiratory tract pathogens, including the biofilm-forming Haemophilus spp.,P. aeruginosa, and S. pneumoniae. All honey samples at the MIC/2 concentration were able toinhibit the formation of biofilm by each bacterium strain tested, linden honey being the mosteffective and the black locust honey being the least. Propolis and cerumen of the AfricanMeliponula ferruginea from Tanzania (Kilimanjaro, Ngarony locality) also had antimicrobialactivity against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Listeriamonocytogenes ATCC 7644, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, Salmonella typhi ATCC14028, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, and Candida albicans ATCC 10239, as well as anti-biofilmactivity at MIC levels (53–89.0% of inhibition) [6]. Such results are promising as they willprovide another source of income for farmers in less favored regions. According to theauthors [6], propolis and cerumen also had anti-quoring sensing properties but at differentMIC and sub-MICs. Concerning the chemical composition of honey, propolis and cerumenof the African Meliponula ferruginea, the authors considered trehalulose as a potential markerfor African stingless bee honey. Concerning propolis and cerumen, di- and triterpenoidsdominated, although with qualitative and quantitative differences among samples.Only one work about bee pollen has its discrimination spectroscopic identification asthe sole target. In this context, Bleha et al. [7], in a communication paper, hypothesized thatthe difference in composition and color, in connection with the botanical source, wouldallow discriminating bee pollen by spectroscopic identification. Thus, the authors [7] con-cluded that a combination of spectroscopic imaging (Fourier transform (FT) mid- and near-infrared (FT-MIR, FT-NIR), and FT-Raman spectra) of bee pollen and statistical methodsusing principal component analysis (PCA) were good tools for evaluating the compositionand quality of eleven bee pollen samples from diverse localities and regions of the SlovakRepublic, with the advantage of being non-destructive. Moreover, FT-Raman spectra alsoenabled indicating plant pigments as chemical markers of botanical origin. Nevertheless,the authors [7] claim that a proper FT-IR/Raman bee pollen library for reference use isneeded, which needs to be exploited and developed in the near future.The biological effects of bee products, such as pollen samples, are related to the contentand composition of polyphenol compounds (hydroxycinnamic acid and flavonol glyco-sides) and carotenoids, although many other compounds can be found (carbohydrates,proteins, enzymes, cofactors, unsaturated and saturated fatty acids, minerals, trace ele-ments, essential amino acids, and vitamins, especially B, A, C, and E), that exert antioxidant,anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-mutagenic, and antitumor effects [8]. Theauthors [8] wanted to complement their data of in vitro antioxidant activities of polyfloral(Castanea, Rubus, and Cistus) Tuscan bee pollen previously determined. For this purpose,they added the results obtained from ex vivo biological tests using human erythrocytesto the existing information. The presence of bee pollen samples of Castanea and Cistusorigins were able to prevent lipid peroxidation and hemolysis, thus being good free radicalscavengers. The anti-hemolytic activity of samples was even better than trolox, the standardused for comparison. In addition, the authors [8] investigated, for the first time, the protec-tive effect of Castanea bee pollen in human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) underendoplasmic reticulum stress conditions induced by thapsigargin. The authors [8] foundFoods 2022, 11, 608 3 of 4that 10 ng/mL of Castanea bee pollen was able to reduce gene overproduction (C/EBP-homologous protein (CHOP), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), intercellular adhesion molecule 1(ICAM-1)) and oxidation processes. In contrast, the antimicrobial activity evaluated by theauthors against Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Enterobacter erogene, Enterococcusfaecalis, and Staphylococcus aureus was poor.Drone brood (DB) is collected from beehives as young male larvae, usually betweendays 4 and 14 of development. DB and royal jelly (RJ) are both yellow, and the former issometimes used to counterfeit RJ since it can be easily obtained and in larger quantitiesthan RJ [9]. For the first time, the authors [9] conducted a detailed study on the chemicalcomposition of DB at various stages of development and RJ that originated from the sameapiaries for comparison. This approach would permit finding the specific markers forRJ and DB in order to distinguish them. Despite the similarities between these two beeproducts, DB was richer in iron and manganese and reduced more sugars and amino acids(tyrosine, proline, and leucine) than RJ. Diastase and α-glucosidase activity as well asferulic and ellagic acids were only found in DB. It also contained more testosterone on the14th day and estradiol on the 7th day than RJ. Since RJ is poorer in hormonal activity thanDB, this could be a way to detect the adulteration of RJ with DB [9].A review on the biological properties of propolis, particularly antibacterial, antiviral,antifungal, and antiparasitic activities, as well as the human clinical trials developed sofar, was carried out by Zulhendri et al. [10], demonstrating that propolis is effective andsafe as an adjuvant therapy to combat infections. Moreover, the mechanisms involvedin these activities involving the pathogens and observed in the host were also reviewedand discussed. Propolis acts on the pathogens through several mechanisms: by forminga physical barrier between the pathogen and the host; by inhibiting the enzymes andproteins needed for invading the host cells; by inhibiting the replication of pathogens;by inhibiting the metabolic pathways of pathogens through the disruption of cellularorganelles and components indispensable for the production of energy [10]. In whatconcerns the host, propolis upregulates the innate immunity, modulating the inflammatorysignaling pathways as well as the oxidative balance.These articles extended the knowledge on bee products by:− finding easier methods to discriminate honey;− finding possible markers for royal jelly and drone brood in order to prevent the royaljelly counterfeit;− finding possible markers for honey, propolis, and cerumen of the African Meliponula ferruginea;− finding the factors that contribute to the antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatoryproperties of honey from different floral and geographical origins;− finding the effect of heavy metals, pesticides, and antibiotic residues on the quality ofRomanian honeys;− finding the mechanisms involved in antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and antipara-sitic activities of propolis.Funding: This research received no external funding.Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.References1. Starowicz, M.; Ostaszyk, A.; Zieliński, H. The relationship between the browning index, total phenolics, color, and antioxidantactivity of Polish-originated honey samples. Foods 2021, 10, 967. [CrossRef] [PubMed]2. Alevia, M.; Rasines, S.; Cantero, L.; Sancho, M.T.; Fernández-Muiño, M.A.; Osés, S.M. Chemical extraction and gastrointestinaldigestion of honey: Influence on its antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities. Foods 2021, 10, 1412. [CrossRef][PubMed]3. Balázs, V.L.; Nagy-Radványi, L.; Filep, R.; Kerekes, E.; Kocsis, B.; Kocsis, M.; Farkas, Á. In vitro antibacterial and antibiofilmactivity of Hungarian honeys against respiratory tract bacteria. Foods 2021, 10, 1632. [CrossRef] [PubMed]4. Boutoub, O.; El-Guendouz, S.; Manhita, A.; Dias, C.B.; Estevinho, L.M.; Paula, V.B.; Carlier, J.; Costa, M.C.; Rodrigues, B.; Raposo,S.; et al. Comparative study of the antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory activities of two types of Moroccan Euphorbia entire honeyand their phenolic extracts. Foods 2021, 10, 1909. [CrossRef]Foods 2022, 11, 608 4 of 45. Scripcă, L.A.; Amariei, S. The influence of chemical contaminants on the physicochemical properties of unifloral and multifloralhoney. Foods 2021, 10, 1039. [CrossRef]6. Popova, M.; Gerginova, D.; Trusheva, B.; Simova, S.; Tamfu, A.N.; Ceylan, O.; Clark, K.; Bankova, V. A preliminary study ofchemical profiles of honey, cerumen, and propolis of the African stingless bee Meliponula ferruginea. Foods 2021, 10, 997. [CrossRef][PubMed]7. Bleha, R.; Shevtsova, T.V.; Živčáková, M.; Korbářová, A.; Ježková, M.; Saloň, I.; Brindza, J.; Synytsya, A. Spectroscopic discrimina-tion of bee pollen by composition, color, and botanical origin. Foods 2021, 10, 1682. [CrossRef] [PubMed]8. Gabriele, M.; Frassininetti, S.; Pucci, L. Antimicrobial activity and protective effect of Tuscan bee pollens on oxidative andendoplasmic reticulum stress in different cell-based models. Foods 2021, 10, 1422. [CrossRef] [PubMed]9. Sidor, E.; Miłel, M.; Zaguła, G.; Bocian, A.; Dżugan, M. Searching for differences in chemical composition and biological activityof crude drone brood and royal jelly useful for their authentication. Foods 2021, 10, 2233. [CrossRef] [PubMed]10. Zulhendri, F.; Chandrasekaran, K.; Kowacz, M.; Ravalia, M.; Kripal, K.; Fearnley, J.; Perera, C.O. Antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal,and antiparasitic properties of propolis: A review. Foods 2021, 10, 1360. [CrossRef] [PubMed]

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