Micropropagated plantlets of cv. Mulata and cv. Galhosa growing in pots,
after acclimatization in the glasshouse and growth for several months under
natural conditions, were transferred to a field trial. Carob seedlings of ‘Mulata’
were also transferred under the same conditions. The field trial has been
established with 100% of success in micropropagated plants and 97% in seedlings.
Three months after transfer to the field, plants showed good growth but
micropropagated plants of ‘Mulata’ exhibited more vigour than ‘Galhosa’ and
than seedlings, with the greatest number of branches and a larger length increase
in the main stem. Before transference to the field, net photosynthetic rates (PN),
water use efficiency (PN/gs) and quantum yield of PSII (fPSII) of the potted plants
were higher in seedlings than in micropropagated plants. Three months after
transplantation all gas exchange parameters were improved for all types of plants,
particularly net photosynthetic rate, and no significant differences were observed
between plants either micropropagated or seedlings. On the other hand, fPSII
decreased significantly in seedlings. The results suggest that the pre-acclimation, in
pots, to external environmental conditions might have improved field survival,
plant vigour and enhanced the endurance to adverse conditions of
micropropagated carob trees

David, Maria Manuela

Osório, Júlio

Osório, Maria Leonor

Romano, Anabela

Universidade do Algarve

Field Performance of Seedlings and Micropropagated Plantlets of 
Carob Tree  
 
M.L. Osório*, J. Osório, M.M. David and A. Romano  
Faculdade de Engenharia de Recursos Naturais, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de 
Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal. Fax: + 351 289 818419  
*Corresponding author: e-mail: mlosorio@ualg.pt 
 
Keywords: Photosynthesis, photoinhibition, photochemistry, survival 
 
Abstract 
Micropropagated plantlets of cv. Mulata and cv. Galhosa growing in pots, 
after acclimatization in the glasshouse and growth for several months under 
natural conditions, were transferred to a field trial. Carob seedlings of ‘Mulata’ 
were also transferred under the same conditions. The field trial has been 
established with 100% of success in micropropagated plants and 97% in seedlings. 
Three months after transfer to the field, plants showed good growth but 
micropropagated plants of ‘Mulata’ exhibited more vigour than ‘Galhosa’ and 
than seedlings, with the greatest number of branches and a larger  length increase 
in the main stem. Before transference to the field, net photosynthetic rates (PN), 
water use efficiency (PN/gs) and quantum yield of PSII (φPSII) of the potted plants 
were higher in seedlings than in micropropagated plants. Three months after 
transplantation all gas exchange parameters were improved for all types of plants, 
particularly net photosynthetic rate, and no significant differences were observed 
between plants either micropropagated or seedlings. On the other hand, φPSII 
decreased significantly in seedlings. The results suggest that the pre-acclimation, in 
pots, to external environmental conditions might have improved field survival, 
plant vigour and enhanced the endurance to adverse conditions of 
micropropagated carob trees.  
  
INTRODUCTION 
Carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is a large (10-20 m) evergreen polygamo-
trioecious tree of slow growth and great longevity. Due to its interesting agroecological 
features, such as resistance to drought and salinity, adaptation to poor soils, and 
minimal cultural requirements, it has been introduced into the whole Mediterranean 
basin and other Mediterranean-like regions (Battle and Tous, 1997). Traditional carob 
propagation has been achieved by grafting saplings with female buds of chosen 
productive trees. This traditional method of propagation has failed to meet the market 
demand for new, selected plant material, required to establish the new early-producing 
orchards on a large scale. Thus, the use of micropropagation techniques seems to be 
appropriate to fulfill the increased demand for propagating this tree (Romano et al. 
2002). The transplantation of micropropagated plants into the field is usually a critical 
step and substantial numbers of plants dye after transfer. Although carob tree is well 
adapted to the Mediterranean climates, the performance of micropropagated plants can 
be affected when moved to the field, since they will be coping with substantial lower 
relative humidity, higher light and higher or lower temperature which are potential 
stressful conditions to them. It has been demonstrated that the combination of these 
factors, that predispose plants to photoinhibition or down-regulation process, 
contributes to the reduction in carbon assimilation that will further affect the young 
plants ability for growth and survival (Chaves et al, 2002). In particular, a CO2 
deprivation at the chloroplast level by stomatal closure could enhance the sensitivity of 
the photosynthetic apparatus to high irradiance (Flexas et al. 1998). Protection 
mechanisms against excess light are thus an important strategy under Mediterranean 
conditions and may be achieved by several mechanisms such as the regulated thermal 
dissipation at the light harvesting complexes (Demmig-Adams and Adams 1996). This 
photoprotective mechanism competes with photochemistry for the absorbed energy, 
leading to a decrease in quantum yield of PSII (Genty et al. 1989).  
As it is still a matter of uncertainty how environmental constraint factors affect 
the field establishment of micropropagated plants of carob tree, the present research was 
undertaken in order to investigate how micropropagated plants of two Portuguese carob 
cultivars, Galhosa and Mulata, deal with the new environment in terms of survival, 
growth and photosynthetic performance. Differences between micropropagated plants 
and seedlings were also evaluated.  
 
MATERIAL AND METHODS 
Micropropagated plants of Ceratonia siliqua (L.) from cv Mulata and  cv 
Galhosa growing in pots, after acclimatization in the glasshouse and growth for several 
months under natural conditions, were transferred to a field trial in the south of 
Portugal, where survival rate and physiological performance has been followed. Carob 
seedlings of ‘Mulata’ were also transferred under the same conditions. Before 
transplantation superphosphate and natural organic fertilizers were applied to the soil. 
Plants were irrigated twice a week during summer. Gas exchange and chlorophyll a 
fluorescence measurements were taken one week before and three months after 
transplantation. Gas exchange measurements were carried out in the youngest fully 
expanded leaf at the middle of the light period, using a portable Minicuvette System 
HCM 1000 (Walz, Effeltrich, Germany). Leaf net photosynthetic rate (PN) and stomatal 
conductance (gs) were calculated according to the equations of von Caemmerer and 
Farquhar (1981). Chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements were performed in the same 
leaves using a portable pulse amplitude modulation fluorometer (PAM-2000 system, 
Walz, Germany). The maximal photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) was estimated 
from Fo (basal fluorescence)
 
and Fm (maximal fluorescence) which values were taken 
before dawn. The intrinsic efficiency of open PSII reaction centers (F’v/F’m) was 
calculated from basal and maximal fluorescence measured under natural irradiance (F’o 
and F’m) and the quantum yield of PSII in light-adapted leaves (φPSII) was evaluated by 
the (F’m-Fs)/F’m ratio (Genty et al. 1989). The photochemical quenching (qp), which 
was used as an estimate of the fraction of open centres, was calculated as: qp= 1-(Fs-
F’o)/(F’m-F’o) (Bilger and Schreiber 1986) and the thermal energy dissipation at the 
PSII as: NPQ = (Fm/F’m)-1 (Cornic 1994). The electron transport rate (ETR) was 
estimated as described by Krall and Edwards (1992), by multiplying ∆F/F’m × PPFD × 
0.5 × 0.84. Plant survival and some shoot growth parameters were also evaluated.  
 
 
 
 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
 
Survival and Growth 
Micropropagated plants survived transplanting in excellent conditions. The field 
trial was established with 100% of success in micropropagated plants and 97% in 
seedlings. In general, plants showed good growth three months after transfer to the 
field, but micropropagated plants of ‘Mulata’ exhibited more vigour than ‘Galhosa’ and 
than ‘Mulata’ seedlings, exhibiting the greatest number of branches. The shoot length 
increase was also higher in micropropagated ‘Mulata’ plants, although no statistical 
significant difference has been observed between plants (Table 1). 
 
Gas Exchange and Chlorophyll Fluorescence  
Before transplantation no significant differences were observed in net 
photosynthetic rate (PN), stomatal conductance (gs), and instantaneous water use 
efficiency (PN/gs), between ‘Galhosa’ and ‘Mulata’. PN and PN/gs were higher in 
seedlings than in micropropagated plants, but these differences were only significant 
relatively to ‘Mulata’ (Fig. 1A, B, C). Despite the reduction in PN of micropropagated 
plants relative to seedlings, the maximal PSII photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) was 
similar and high (0.78-0.73) in the three types of plants, which indicates no PSII 
damage. No significant differences were observed in the intrinsic efficiency of open 
PSII reaction centers (F’v/F’m), the photochemical quenching (qp) and non-
photochemical quenching (NPQ) of chlorophyll fluorescence between the three types of 
plants (Fig. 2B, C, D). However, the quantum yield of PSII electron transport in the 
light (φPSII) was higher in seedlings (Fig. 2A), which agrees with the best photosynthetic 
capacity of these plants, and can be related with a greater concentration of chlorophyll. 
After transplantation all gas exchange parameters were improved and no 
significant differences were observed between plants (Fig. 1D, E, F, G), despite φPSII has 
decreased in seedlings (Fig. 2 D). On the other hand, the (Fv/Fm) ratio declined 
significantly (0.57-0.63), which may indicate that some degree of photoinhibition 
occurred. The observed decrease on NPQ (Fig. 2H), also point out that regulated 
thermal dissipation in light harvesting complexes were not promoted suggesting that 
this mechanism could not be enough to avoid some photoinhibition.  Carob tree has 
been considered the most sensitive species, among other Mediterranean sclerophyll 
species, to low temperatures (Larcher, 1981). Considering the low night temperatures 
that occurred in the week of the field measurements (about 6 ºC at predawn), the authors 
ascribe the photoinhibitory effect to this particular environmental condition and not to 
transplantation per se.  
  
CONCLUSIONS 
This study shows that micropropagated plants of carob tree have excellent field 
survival. Results suggest that the pre-acclimation to external environmental conditions 
in pots might have improved field survival and plant vigour. The enhanced 
photosynthetic carbon assimilation and growth three months after transplantation are 
presumably related with adequate fertilization (enough nutrient reserves), and with the 
absence of a volumetric limitation to the root system development.  
 
 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
We thank financial support by INIAP - project AGRO 770 “Plantation of a clonal field 
of micropropagated plants of carob tree”. 
 
 
 
Literature Cited 
Battle, I. and Tous, J. 1997. Carob tree. Ceratonia siliqua L. Promoting the 
conservation and use of under-utilised and neglected crops. Plant Genetic Resource 
Institute, Gatersleben/International, Rome. 
Bilger, W. and Schreiber. U., 1986. Energy-dependent quenching of dark level 
chlorophyll fluorescence in intact leaves. Photosynth.  Res. 10: 303-308. 
Chaves, M.M., Pereira, J.S., Maroco, J., Rodrigues, M.L., Ricardo C.P.P., Osório. M.L., 
Carvalho, I., Faria, T. And Pinheiro, C., 2002. How plants cope with water stress in 
the field. Photosynthesis and growth. Ann. Bot. 89: 907-916. 
Cornic, G., 1994. Drought stress and high light effects on leaf photosynthesis. p. 297-
313. In: Baker NR, Bowyer JR (Eds.), Photoinhibition of photosynthesis: From 
Molecular Mechanisms to the Field. BIOS Scientific Publishers, Oxford. 
Demmig-Adams, B. and Adams, WWIII., 1996. Xanthophyll cycle and light stress in 
nature: uniform response to excess direct sunlight among higher plant species. Planta 
198: 460-470. 
Flexas, J., Escalona, J.M. and Medrano, H., 1998. Down-regulation of photosynthesis 
by drought under field conditions in grapevines leaves. Aust. J.  Plant Physiol.  25: 
893-900. 
Genty, B., Briantais, J.M. and Baker, N.R., 1989. The relationship between the quantum 
yield of photosynthetic electron transport and quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence. 
Biochim. Biophys. Acta  990: 87-92. 
Krall, J.P. and Edwards, G.E., 1992. Relationship between photosystem II activity and 
CO2 fixation in leaves. Physiol. Plant. 86: 180-187. 
Larcher, W. 1981. Low temperature effects on Mediterranean sclerophylls: an 
unconventional viewpoint. In: Margaris & Mooney (Eds.), Componentes of 
Productivity of Mediterranean-Climate Regions, Basic and Applied Aspects. 
Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. 
Romano A., Barros S. and Martins-Loução M.A. 2002. Micropropagation of the 
mediterranean tree Ceratonia siliqua L. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 68: 35-
41. 
Von Caemmerer, S. and Farquhar, G.D., 1981. Some relationships between the 
biochemistry of photosynthesis and the gas exchange of leaves. Planta 153: 376-387. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Tables 
 
Table 1. Main shoot length increase and number of new leaves and lateral branches of 
micropropagated ‘Mulata and ‘Galhosa’ and seedlings of carob tree three months after 
transplantation at field. 
 
Plant Type Survival (%) Increase in 
shoot length 
(cm) 
Nº new leaves 
on terminal 
shoot 
Nº of new 
lateral branches 
‘Mulata’ 100 a 6.4 ± 1.2 a 4.2 ± 0.5 ab 1.8 ± 0.3 a 
‘Galhosa’ 100 a 3.7 ± 1.1 a 5.5 ± 0.4 a 0.1 ± 0.2 ab 
Seedling 97 a 3.9 ± 1.5 a  3.3 ± 0.5 b 0.0 ± 0.0 b 
The values shown are means ± SE from five samples. Values followed by the same 
letter are not significantly different at P≤0.05 (one-way ANOVA, Bonferroni test). 
 
 
Figures 
 
POTS
P N
 
(m
m
o
l m
-
2  
s-
1 )
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
b ab
a
g s
 
(m
m
o
l m
-
2  
s-
1 )
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
B
a
a
a
M G S
P N
/g
s 
(m
m
o
l m
o
l-1
)
0
50
100
150
C
b
ab
a
FIELD
D
E
M G S
F
a a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
A
 
 
Figure 1. Net photosynthesis rate (PN), stomatal conductance (gs) and instantaneous 
water use efficiency PN/gs of micropropagated plants and seedlings of carob tree before 
(Pots) and after (Field) transplantation. The values shown are means ± SE from five 
samples. Values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P≤0.05 
(one-way ANOVA, Bonferroni test). 
 
M G S
N
PQ
0
1
2
3
4
F'
v
/F
' m
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
b
POTS
φ PS
II
0.0
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
B
b b
a
FIELD
E
a
b
A
aa
a
a
b
q p
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0 C
a a
a
F
a
a
a
ab
ab
D
a
a
a
M G S
a
a
a
G
H
 
 
Figure 2. Quantum yield of PSII (φPSII), intrinsic efficiency of open PSII reaction 
centers (F’v/F’m), photochemical quenching (qp) and non-photochemical quenching 
(NPQ) of chlorophyll fluorescence of micropropagated plants and seedlings of carob 
tree before (Pots) and after (Field) transplantation. The values shown are means ± SE 
from five samples. Values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 
P≤0.05 (one-way ANOVA, Bonferroni test). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


Field performance of seedlings and microproppagated plants of carob tree

Sapientia

Field Performance of Seedlings and Micropropagated Plantlets of Carob Tree   M.L. Osório*, J. Osório, M.M. David and A. Romano  Faculdade de Engenharia de Recursos Naturais, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal. Fax: + 351 289 818419  *Corresponding author: e-mail: mlosorio@ualg.pt  Keywords: Photosynthesis, photoinhibition, photochemistry, survival  Abstract Micropropagated plantlets of cv. Mulata and cv. Galhosa growing in pots, after acclimatization in the glasshouse and growth for several months under natural conditions, were transferred to a field trial. Carob seedlings of ‘Mulata’ were also transferred under the same conditions. The field trial has been established with 100% of success in micropropagated plants and 97% in seedlings. Three months after transfer to the field, plants showed good growth but micropropagated plants of ‘Mulata’ exhibited more vigour than ‘Galhosa’ and than seedlings, with the greatest number of branches and a larger  length increase in the main stem. Before transference to the field, net photosynthetic rates (PN), water use efficiency (PN/gs) and quantum yield of PSII (φPSII) of the potted plants were higher in seedlings than in micropropagated plants. Three months after transplantation all gas exchange parameters were improved for all types of plants, particularly net photosynthetic rate, and no significant differences were observed between plants either micropropagated or seedlings. On the other hand, φPSII decreased significantly in seedlings. The results suggest that the pre-acclimation, in pots, to external environmental conditions might have improved field survival, plant vigour and enhanced the endurance to adverse conditions of micropropagated carob trees.    INTRODUCTION Carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is a large (10-20 m) evergreen polygamo-trioecious tree of slow growth and great longevity. Due to its interesting agroecological features, such as resistance to drought and salinity, adaptation to poor soils, and minimal cultural requirements, it has been introduced into the whole Mediterranean basin and other Mediterranean-like regions (Battle and Tous, 1997). Traditional carob propagation has been achieved by grafting saplings with female buds of chosen productive trees. This traditional method of propagation has failed to meet the market demand for new, selected plant material, required to establish the new early-producing orchards on a large scale. Thus, the use of micropropagation techniques seems to be appropriate to fulfill the increased demand for propagating this tree (Romano et al. 2002). The transplantation of micropropagated plants into the field is usually a critical step and substantial numbers of plants dye after transfer. Although carob tree is well adapted to the Mediterranean climates, the performance of micropropagated plants can be affected when moved to the field, since they will be coping with substantial lower relative humidity, higher light and higher or lower temperature which are potential stressful conditions to them. It has been demonstrated that the combination of these factors, that predispose plants to photoinhibition or down-regulation process, contributes to the reduction in carbon assimilation that will further affect the young plants ability for growth and survival (Chaves et al, 2002). In particular, a CO2 deprivation at the chloroplast level by stomatal closure could enhance the sensitivity of the photosynthetic apparatus to high irradiance (Flexas et al. 1998). Protection mechanisms against excess light are thus an important strategy under Mediterranean conditions and may be achieved by several mechanisms such as the regulated thermal dissipation at the light harvesting complexes (Demmig-Adams and Adams 1996). This photoprotective mechanism competes with photochemistry for the absorbed energy, leading to a decrease in quantum yield of PSII (Genty et al. 1989).  As it is still a matter of uncertainty how environmental constraint factors affect the field establishment of micropropagated plants of carob tree, the present research was undertaken in order to investigate how micropropagated plants of two Portuguese carob cultivars, Galhosa and Mulata, deal with the new environment in terms of survival, growth and photosynthetic performance. Differences between micropropagated plants and seedlings were also evaluated.   MATERIAL AND METHODS Micropropagated plants of Ceratonia siliqua (L.) from cv Mulata and  cv Galhosa growing in pots, after acclimatization in the glasshouse and growth for several months under natural conditions, were transferred to a field trial in the south of Portugal, where survival rate and physiological performance has been followed. Carob seedlings of ‘Mulata’ were also transferred under the same conditions. Before transplantation superphosphate and natural organic fertilizers were applied to the soil. Plants were irrigated twice a week during summer. Gas exchange and chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements were taken one week before and three months after transplantation. Gas exchange measurements were carried out in the youngest fully expanded leaf at the middle of the light period, using a portable Minicuvette System HCM 1000 (Walz, Effeltrich, Germany). Leaf net photosynthetic rate (PN) and stomatal conductance (gs) were calculated according to the equations of von Caemmerer and Farquhar (1981). Chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements were performed in the same leaves using a portable pulse amplitude modulation fluorometer (PAM-2000 system, Walz, Germany). The maximal photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) was estimated from Fo (basal fluorescence) and Fm (maximal fluorescence) which values were taken before dawn. The intrinsic efficiency of open PSII reaction centers (F’v/F’m) was calculated from basal and maximal fluorescence measured under natural irradiance (F’o and F’m) and the quantum yield of PSII in light-adapted leaves (φPSII) was evaluated by the (F’m-Fs)/F’m ratio (Genty et al. 1989). The photochemical quenching (qp), which was used as an estimate of the fraction of open centres, was calculated as: qp= 1-(Fs-F’o)/(F’m-F’o) (Bilger and Schreiber 1986) and the thermal energy dissipation at the PSII as: NPQ = (Fm/F’m)-1 (Cornic 1994). The electron transport rate (ETR) was estimated as described by Krall and Edwards (1992), by multiplying ∆F/F’m × PPFD × 0.5 × 0.84. Plant survival and some shoot growth parameters were also evaluated.      RESULTS AND DISCUSSION  Survival and Growth Micropropagated plants survived transplanting in excellent conditions. The field trial was established with 100% of success in micropropagated plants and 97% in seedlings. In general, plants showed good growth three months after transfer to the field, but micropropagated plants of ‘Mulata’ exhibited more vigour than ‘Galhosa’ and than ‘Mulata’ seedlings, exhibiting the greatest number of branches. The shoot length increase was also higher in micropropagated ‘Mulata’ plants, although no statistical significant difference has been observed between plants (Table 1).  Gas Exchange and Chlorophyll Fluorescence  Before transplantation no significant differences were observed in net photosynthetic rate (PN), stomatal conductance (gs), and instantaneous water use efficiency (PN/gs), between ‘Galhosa’ and ‘Mulata’. PN and PN/gs were higher in seedlings than in micropropagated plants, but these differences were only significant relatively to ‘Mulata’ (Fig. 1A, B, C). Despite the reduction in PN of micropropagated plants relative to seedlings, the maximal PSII photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) was similar and high (0.78-0.73) in the three types of plants, which indicates no PSII damage. No significant differences were observed in the intrinsic efficiency of open PSII reaction centers (F’v/F’m), the photochemical quenching (qp) and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) of chlorophyll fluorescence between the three types of plants (Fig. 2B, C, D). However, the quantum yield of PSII electron transport in the light (φPSII) was higher in seedlings (Fig. 2A), which agrees with the best photosynthetic capacity of these plants, and can be related with a greater concentration of chlorophyll. After transplantation all gas exchange parameters were improved and no significant differences were observed between plants (Fig. 1D, E, F, G), despite φPSII has decreased in seedlings (Fig. 2 D). On the other hand, the (Fv/Fm) ratio declined significantly (0.57-0.63), which may indicate that some degree of photoinhibition occurred. The observed decrease on NPQ (Fig. 2H), also point out that regulated thermal dissipation in light harvesting complexes were not promoted suggesting that this mechanism could not be enough to avoid some photoinhibition.  Carob tree has been considered the most sensitive species, among other Mediterranean sclerophyll species, to low temperatures (Larcher, 1981). Considering the low night temperatures that occurred in the week of the field measurements (about 6 ºC at predawn), the authors ascribe the photoinhibitory effect to this particular environmental condition and not to transplantation per se.    CONCLUSIONS This study shows that micropropagated plants of carob tree have excellent field survival. Results suggest that the pre-acclimation to external environmental conditions in pots might have improved field survival and plant vigour. The enhanced photosynthetic carbon assimilation and growth three months after transplantation are presumably related with adequate fertilization (enough nutrient reserves), and with the absence of a volumetric limitation to the root system development.     ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank financial support by INIAP - project AGRO 770 “Plantation of a clonal field of micropropagated plants of carob tree”.    Literature Cited Battle, I. and Tous, J. 1997. Carob tree. Ceratonia siliqua L. Promoting the conservation and use of under-utilised and neglected crops. Plant Genetic Resource Institute, Gatersleben/International, Rome. Bilger, W. and Schreiber. U., 1986. Energy-dependent quenching of dark level chlorophyll fluorescence in intact leaves. Photosynth.  Res. 10: 303-308. Chaves, M.M., Pereira, J.S., Maroco, J., Rodrigues, M.L., Ricardo C.P.P., Osório. M.L., Carvalho, I., Faria, T. And Pinheiro, C., 2002. How plants cope with water stress in the field. Photosynthesis and growth. Ann. Bot. 89: 907-916. Cornic, G., 1994. Drought stress and high light effects on leaf photosynthesis. p. 297-313. In: Baker NR, Bowyer JR (Eds.), Photoinhibition of photosynthesis: From Molecular Mechanisms to the Field. BIOS Scientific Publishers, Oxford. Demmig-Adams, B. and Adams, WWIII., 1996. Xanthophyll cycle and light stress in nature: uniform response to excess direct sunlight among higher plant species. Planta 198: 460-470. Flexas, J., Escalona, J.M. and Medrano, H., 1998. Down-regulation of photosynthesis by drought under field conditions in grapevines leaves. Aust. J.  Plant Physiol.  25: 893-900. Genty, B., Briantais, J.M. and Baker, N.R., 1989. The relationship between the quantum yield of photosynthetic electron transport and quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence. Biochim. Biophys. Acta  990: 87-92. Krall, J.P. and Edwards, G.E., 1992. Relationship between photosystem II activity and CO2 fixation in leaves. Physiol. Plant. 86: 180-187. Larcher, W. 1981. Low temperature effects on Mediterranean sclerophylls: an unconventional viewpoint. In: Margaris & Mooney (Eds.), Componentes of Productivity of Mediterranean-Climate Regions, Basic and Applied Aspects. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. Romano A., Barros S. and Martins-Loução M.A. 2002. Micropropagation of the mediterranean tree Ceratonia siliqua L. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 68: 35-41. Von Caemmerer, S. and Farquhar, G.D., 1981. Some relationships between the biochemistry of photosynthesis and the gas exchange of leaves. Planta 153: 376-387.         Tables  Table 1. Main shoot length increase and number of new leaves and lateral branches of micropropagated ‘Mulata and ‘Galhosa’ and seedlings of carob tree three months after transplantation at field.  Plant Type Survival (%) Increase in shoot length (cm) Nº new leaves on terminal shoot Nº of new lateral branches ‘Mulata’ 100 a 6.4 ± 1.2 a 4.2 ± 0.5 ab 1.8 ± 0.3 a ‘Galhosa’ 100 a 3.7 ± 1.1 a 5.5 ± 0.4 a 0.1 ± 0.2 ab Seedling 97 a 3.9 ± 1.5 a  3.3 ± 0.5 b 0.0 ± 0.0 b The values shown are means ± SE from five samples. Values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P≤0.05 (one-way ANOVA, Bonferroni test).   Figures  POTSP N (mmol m-2  s-1 )02468101214b abag s (mmol m-2  s-1 )020406080100120BaaaM G SP N/gs (mmol mol-1)050100150CbabaFIELDDEM G SFa aaaaaaaaA  Figure 1. Net photosynthesis rate (PN), stomatal conductance (gs) and instantaneous water use efficiency PN/gs of micropropagated plants and seedlings of carob tree before (Pots) and after (Field) transplantation. The values shown are means ± SE from five samples. Values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P≤0.05 (one-way ANOVA, Bonferroni test).  M G SNPQ01234F'v/F' m0.00.20.40.60.81.0bPOTSφ PSII0.00.050.100.150.200.25Bb baFIELDEabAaaaabq p0.00.20.40.60.81.0 Ca aaFaaaababDaaaM G SaaaGH  Figure 2. Quantum yield of PSII (φPSII), intrinsic efficiency of open PSII reaction centers (F’v/F’m), photochemical quenching (qp) and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) of chlorophyll fluorescence of micropropagated plants and seedlings of carob tree before (Pots) and after (Field) transplantation. The values shown are means ± SE from five samples. Values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P≤0.05 (one-way ANOVA, Bonferroni test).           

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Field performance of seedlings and microproppagated plants of carob tree

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