Albert, Paul

Arienzo,

Barker,

Barton,

Blockley, Simon

Borić,

Bronk Ramsey,

Carandente,

Civetta,

Cullen,

Davies,

Ferrier,

Gamble,

Grant,

Guadelli,

Hardiman,

Housley, Rupert

Karkanas,

Koumouzelis,

Lane,

Lee,

Lewis,

Lowe, John

MacLeod, Alison

Menzies, Martin

Müller,

Orsi,

Pollard,

Price,

Pross,

Roberts,

Rohling,

Rosi,

Satow, Christopher

Shalamanov-Korobar,

Sirakov,

Smith,

Stringer,

Tomlinson, Emma

Tzedakis,

White, Dustin

Marked changes in human dispersal and development during the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition have been attributed to massive volcanic eruption and/or severe climatic deterioration. We test this concept using records of volcanic ash layers of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption dated to ca. 40,000 y ago (40 ka B.P.). The distribution of the Campanian Ignimbrite has been enhanced by the discovery of cryptotephra deposits (volcanic ash layers that are not visible to the naked eye) in archaeological cave sequences. They enable us to synchronize archaeological and paleoclimatic records through the period of transition from Neanderthal to the earliest anatomically modern human populations in Europe. Our results confirm that the combined effects of a major volcanic eruption and severe climatic cooling failed to have lasting impacts on Neanderthals or early modern humans in Europe. We infer that modern humans proved a greater competitive threat to indigenous populations than natural disasters

Barton

Bronk Ramsey

Cullen

Davies

Gamble

Grant

Hardiman

Lane

Lewis

Müller

Pollard

Price

Roberts

Rohling

Smith

Stringer

Arienzo

Barker

Borić

Carandente

Civetta

Ferrier

Guadelli

Karkanas

Koumouzelis

Orsi

Pross

Rosi

Shalamanov-Korobar

Sirakov

Tzedakis

Royal Holloway - Pure

Supporting InformationLowe et al. 10.1073/pnas.1204579109SI TextResponse of Humans to Abrupt Environmental Transitions Project.The Response of Humans to Abrupt Environmental Transitions(RESET) Project is a Consortium research initiative launched in2008 and funded by the Natural Environment Research Council(United Kingdom). It brings together archaeologists, volcanolo-gists, geochemists, tephrochronologists, and stratigraphers to in-vestigate the chronology of major phases of human dispersal anddevelopment in Europe andNorthAfrica during the past 100,000 yand examine the degree to which these phases were inﬂuenced byabrupt environmental transitions (http://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/reset/).To achieve these aims, the RESET Project has been constructingan improved chronological framework for Europe based on thetracing of important volcanic ash layers (tephra horizons). Wherethese ash layers can be shown to be stratigraphically discrete andchemically distinctive, they provide time-parallel signatures thatcan be used to synchronize archaeological and geological records.A key feature of the RESET Project is the importance attachedto tracing cryptotephra layers. Composed of tiny fragments ofvolcanic glass that are not visible to the naked eye (Fig. 1), someof these layers have been widely dispersed throughout Europeand the Mediterranean (see below). In partnership with a net-work of collaborating scientists from across Europe, the RESETProject is compiling a comprehensive database of the strati-graphic occurrence and chemical differentiation of distal tephralayers spanning (primarily) the last 100,000 y, the results of whichwill be made available to the wider scientiﬁc community throughthe RHOXTOR (Royal Holloway and Oxford TephrochronologyResearch Network) website (http://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/rhoxtor).The RESET Project set out to establish whether cryptotephralayers could be traced to important archaeological and geologicsites in Europe, the fringe of North Africa and the Middle East,and the Mediterranean Sea, with a key objective being to syn-chronize records that span the Middle Paleolithic (MP) to UpperPaleolithic (UP) transition. Until present, the project has led tothe discovery of multiple cryptotephra layers in sites that en-compass a range of time periods and sedimentary contexts, in-cluding lacustrine, peat bog, colluvial, paleosol, eolian, marine,and cave deposits. Cryptotephra layers are more widespread andnumerous than previously supposed (1, 2). Where possible, nu-merous single tephra shards extracted from these layers aresystematically analyzed for geochemical composition using EP-MA WDS (major and minor elements) and laser ablation in-ductively coupled plasma MS (LA-ICP-MS; trace element)methods, with key layers compared directly with the geochemicalsignatures of proximal volcanic deposits to determine their originand age (Methods). As of June 1, 2012, the RESET databasecontained contextual information for about 969 sites (mostly inEurope) and geochemical data for the products of 317 Europeanvolcanic eruptions, the youngest being tephra from the A.D.1947 Hekla eruption and the oldest being from the stage 9 RHY-1 layer (∼330 ka B.P.), both sourced from Iceland. Applicationsof results published so far have focused on reﬁning the chro-nology of the Last Termination (ca. 14–11 ka B.P.) by extendingthe known distributions of Icelandic cryptotephra as far south asSwitzerland and north Italy (3–5), determining the precise tem-poral relationship between important cryptotephra isochronsoriginating from Icelandic and Italian sources found coregisteredin the same sediment sequence (6), and constraining the chem-istry of proximal volcanic deposits to provide robust comparisonswith distal records (7, 8).This article presents data for discoveries of the CampanianIgnimbrite volcanic ash found at sites in Europe and the Medi-terranean. Table S1 provides summary data for the RESET sitesshown in Fig. 2, whereas Tables S2–S5 provide the chemical dataon which Fig. 3 is based.Transitional MP to UP Industries and Period. Over recent decades,varying technological and typological deﬁnitions of MP to UPtransitional industries have been advanced. Implicit in the termtransitional is the belief that such industries contain a mixture ofMP andUP technotypological features, although different authorsidentify different proportions of such attributes (9). Industriesperceived to have strong similarities to preceding local late MPindustries are often assumed to be of Neanderthal manufacture,whereas others are held to be technotypologically intrusive. Well-known examples of transitional industries include the Châ-telperronian, Szeletian, Bohunician, Uluzzian/Klissoura initialUP, Bachokirian, and initial UP industries of the Russian Plain.The last ﬁve fall within our study region, but so far, we have notfound Campanian Ignimbrite (CI) in Szeletian or Bohuniciandeposits. Associated hominin skeletal remains are rare: Nean-derthal remains seem to be associated with a few Châtelperronianand Szeletian assemblages, whereas the Uluzzian, Bachokirian,and some Russian Plain initial UP industries seem to be associ-ated with anatomically modern humans. The Bohunician has noskeletal associations, but it has been linked to the Emiran tran-sitional UP industry (likewise with no skeletal associations) in theLevant on technotypological grounds (10).1. Bourne A, et al. (2010) Tephrostratigraphical record of the last c. 105,000 yearsobtained from core PRAD 1-2 in the Central Adriatic Sea. Quat Sci Rev 29:3079–3094.2. Davies SM, Branch NP, Lowe JJ, Turney CSM (2002) Towards a Europeantephrochronological framework for Termination 1 and the Early Holocene. PhilosTransact A Math Phys Eng Sci 360:767–802.3. Blockley SPE, Lane CS, Lotter AF, Pollard AM (2006) Evidence for the presence of theVedde Ash in Central Europe. Quat Sci Rev 26:3030–3036.4. Lane CS, et al. (2012) A regional tephrostratigraphic framework for central andsouthern European climate archives during the Last Glacial to Interglacial transition:Comparisons north and south of the Alps. Quat Sci Rev 36:50–58.5. Lane CS, et al. (2011) Tephrochronology and absolute centennial-scale synchronizationof European and Greenland records for the last glacial to interglacial transition: A casestudy of Soppensee and NGRIP. Quat Int 246:145–156.6. Lane CS, et al. (2011) The occurrence of distal Icelandic and Italian tephra in theLateglacial of Lake Bled, Slovenia. Quat Sci Rev 30:1013–1018.7. Tomlinson EL, Thordarson T, Müller W, Thirlwall MF, Menzies MA (2010) Microanalysisof tephra by LA-ICP-MS - strategies, advantages and limitations assessed using theThorsmörk Ignimbrite (Southern Iceland). Chem Geol 279:73–89.8. Tomlinson E, et al. (2012) Geochemistry of the Phlegrean Fields (Italy) proximalsources for major Mediterranean tephras: Implications for the dispersal of Plinian andco-ignimbritic components of explosive eruptions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta10.1016/j.gca.2012.05.43.9. Zilhão J, d’Errico F (2003) The chronology of the Aurignacian and Transitionaltechnocomplexes. Where do we stand? The Chronology of the Aurignacian and of theTransitional Technocomplexes. Dating, Stratigraphies, Cultural Implications, edsZilhão J, d’Errico F (Instituto Portugues de Arqueologia, Lisbon), pp 313–349.10. Skrdla P (1996) The Bohunician reduction strategy. Quaternaria Nova 6:93–107.Lowe et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/1204579109 1 of 5Table S1. Sites in which the CI has been newly discovered or in the case of Franchthi Cave, conﬁrmed geochemically (locations shownin Fig. 1)Site Archive Latitude Longitude Altitude (m) Tephra Archaeological context of CINo. of othertephras*Haua Fteah Paleolithic cave 32° 49′ 60″ N 22° 10′ 0″ E 60 Crypto- Dabban industry (lower) 3Klissoura Paleolithic cave 37° 41′ 23″ N 22° 48′ 27″ E 114 Crypto- Separates UP Uluzzian fromAurignacian occupations3Kozarnika Paleolithic cave 43° 39′ 06″ N 22° 42′ 09″ E 481 Crypto- Within early UP 1Franchthi Paleolithic cave 37° 25′ 20″ N 23° 07′ 53″ E 11 Visible Overlies MP 0Golema Pesht Paleolithic cave 41° 47′ 01″ N 21° 09′ 03″ E 460 Crypto- Within early UP 0Tabula Traiana Paleolithic cave 44° 39′ N 22° 18′ E 90 Crypto- Within early UP 1LC21 Marine core 35° 39′ 43″ N 26° 34′ 58″ E −1,522 Visible — >10Tenaghi Philippon Peat bog core 40° 58′ 24″ N 24° 13′ 26″ E 40 Visible — >5*This column represents the number of additional tephra layers (mostly cryptotephra) discovered so far at each site.1. Tomlinson E, et al. (2012) Geochemistry of the Phlegrean Fields (Italy) proximal sources of major Mediterranean tephras: Implications for the dispersal of Plinian and co-ignimbriticcomponents of explosive eruptions. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 10.1016/j.gca.2012.05.043.Table S2. Representative glass composition data for the CI proximal units (ref. 1)Locality (unit) Voscone (CI fall) Mondragone (CI lower and intermediate ﬂow) San Marco (CI upper ﬂow)Major elements (WDS-EPMA, wt %)SiO2 60.79 61.21 59.76 60.69 61.25 61.11 61.36 61.40 61.50 61.87 59.06 59.78 60.58 60.79 61.11TiO2 0.47 0.45 0.46 0.50 0.47 0.46 0.48 0.42 0.37 0.41 0.40 0.36 0.46 0.47 0.48Al2O3 19.34 19.12 19.85 19.40 18.76 18.73 18.88 18.86 18.81 18.79 18.13 18.11 18.07 18.18 18.34FeO 2.93 2.89 3.17 2.97 2.86 3.01 2.91 2.92 2.81 2.74 3.27 3.38 2.90 2.74 2.94MnO 0.19 0.24 0.24 0.21 0.25 0.22 0.23 0.19 0.23 0.19 0.11 0.10 0.18 0.21 0.27MgO 0.32 0.33 0.54 0.28 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.30 0.32 0.32 0.64 0.73 0.35 0.34 0.32CaO 1.71 1.71 2.10 1.82 1.82 1.74 1.57 1.62 1.65 1.52 2.36 2.23 1.65 1.45 1.60Na2O 6.18 5.96 5.73 6.20 6.30 6.31 6.22 6.20 6.24 6.04 2.91 3.06 4.77 4.55 4.70K2O 7.35 7.40 7.48 7.16 7.27 7.18 7.19 7.19 7.16 7.26 9.65 9.61 8.07 7.93 8.49P2O5 0.06 0.07 0.13 0.08 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.14 0.07 0.06 0.09 0.04Total 97.22 96.52 94.09 94.13 95.82 97.26 97.56 97.69 96.52 97.24 96.92 97.68 97.65 97.27 98.84Cl (ppm) 5,400 5,200 4,300 5,700 5,200 7,000 6,700 6,900 6,900 6,400 1,958 2,121 4,732 4,324 4,569Trace elements (LA-ICP-MS, ppm)Rb 500 470 410 450 440 430 430 450 430 430 286 295 413 437 470Sr 46 29 94 33 30 39 27 39 25 40 226 392 23 71 17Y 51 50 46 54 53 51 51 49 46 52 20 19 54 36 54Zr 660 600 600 670 660 620 620 580 560 620 186 173 651 405 652Nb 120 112 109 121 120 112 112 110 112 116 32 29 122 74 123Ba 24 19 67 16 15 13 13 19 17 13 269 453 17 73 14La 121 115 106 126 121 119 118 115 113 122 46 44 124 85 127Ce 228 220 188 238 229 226 228 219 215 233 88 83 237 162 239Pr 24 22 21 24 23 23 23 22 22 24 9 9 24 16 24Nd 84 79 72 83 80 80 79 75 72 81 35 33 84 59 86Sm 14 14 13 15 14 13 14 13 12 15 6 6 14 10 15Eu 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.9 2.0 1.4 1.6 1.4Gd 10.7 10.4 9.1 11.4 10.8 10.1 10.7 9.9 9.9 10.0 4.8 4.5 10.2 7.6 10.9Dy 8.3 9.5 8.4 9.8 9.6 8.7 9.3 8.6 8.5 9.3 4.1 4.0 9.5 6.6 10.0Er 5.1 4.7 4.7 5.4 5.2 5.1 5.1 5.0 4.9 5.2 2.0 1.9 5.5 3.6 5.5Yb 5.1 4.8 4.8 5.7 5.2 5.5 5.2 4.9 4.6 5.4 1.9 1.9 5.4 3.7 5.7Lu 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.5 0.8Ta 5.2 5.2 5.2 6.0 5.7 4.9 5.3 5.0 4.9 5.5 1.6 1.5 5.6 3.5 5.9Th 44 45 43 53 50 48 49 45 43 50 14 13 52 32 53U 16 17 14 19 18 17 18 16 16 18 5 5 19 12 19Lowe et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/1204579109 2 of 5Table S3. Representative glass composition data for distal CI tephra detected in the archaeological sites of Haua Fteah, Kozarnika, andFranchthiLocality (unit) Haua Fteah (cryptotephra) Kozarnika (cryptotephra) Franchthi (visible layer)Major elements (WDS-EPMA, wt %)SiO2 60.31 60.57 60.84 60.97 61.13 61.45 61.95 62.18 62.40 62.75 60.74 60.84 61.00 61.19 61.38TiO2 0.53 0.47 0.42 0.44 0.48 0.49 0.34 0.46 0.43 0.49 0.42 0.42 0.39 0.43 0.41Al2O3 19.17 18.90 18.59 18.91 18.58 19.28 19.08 18.50 18.34 18.39 18.83 18.92 18.71 18.73 18.77FeO 3.02 3.07 2.90 2.92 2.97 3.00 2.63 2.82 2.93 2.89 2.97 2.85 2.95 2.80 2.86MnO 0.25 0.19 0.12 0.21 0.22 0.14 0.18 0.22 0.20 0.17 0.19 0.18 0.25 0.20 0.21MgO 0.32 0.28 0.31 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.27 0.29 0.28 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.30 0.35CaO 1.95 1.75 1.92 1.80 1.71 1.65 1.74 1.73 1.63 1.74 1.76 1.70 1.73 1.76 1.68Na2O 6.14 6.30 6.22 6.34 6.23 6.41 6.19 6.35 6.70 6.19 6.56 6.57 6.21 6.54 6.30K2O 7.40 7.51 7.74 7.19 7.48 7.26 7.62 7.45 7.08 7.05 7.28 7.30 7.54 7.20 7.18P2O5 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.07 — — — — — 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.03Total 97.52 99.48 97.94 96.94 98.89 98.57 98.27 99.42 98.71 98.43 96.35 97.19 98.81 98.02 95.12Cl (ppm) 7,200 7,200 7,200 7,700 6,600 — — — — — 6,900 6,800 6,800 6,600 6,700Trace elements (LA-ICP-MS, ppm)Rb 450 450 410 440 440 470 430 440 460 490 410 390 400 440 430Sr 18 19 17 19 21 21 19 20 20 22 22 20 25 23 24Y 53 54 51 51 55 56 54 55 55 58 52 42 45 49 50Zr 640 640 610 610 660 670 650 670 670 700 600 530 560 610 590Nb 117 118 114 115 116 123 118 124 123 126 110 99 103 113 111Ba 14 17 13 14 15 16 14 14 17 17 17 17 22 19 21La 123 126 119 119 127 129 123 126 127 134 120 107 109 117 116Ce 233 237 226 229 242 247 240 246 247 255 227 205 203 218 221Pr 24 24 23 23 24 25 24 25 25 26 24 20 21 22 22Nd 81 83 77 79 87 87 83 84 85 91 79 71 74 81 78Sm 15 14 14 13 16 14 14 14 15 16 12 12 13 13 13Eu 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.3Gd 10.4 10.7 10.0 10.4 11.1 12.3 12.0 11.8 12.0 11.7 9.5 10.5 9.9 9.7 10.3Dy 9.9 9.5 9.0 9.0 9.8 10.3 9.8 10.0 9.9 10.0 9.3 7.5 8.4 9.3 8.7Er 5.3 5.4 5.2 5.4 5.9 5.6 5.2 5.5 5.6 5.8 5.6 4.6 5.1 5.1 5.3Yb 5.5 5.6 5.5 5.4 5.7 6.0 5.6 5.8 5.6 5.9 5.2 4.6 5.2 5.4 5.1Lu 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.8Ta 5.6 5.5 5.2 5.3 5.6 5.9 5.5 5.7 5.7 5.9 5.5 4.3 5.0 5.5 5.2Th 51 51 48 48 54 54 50 53 53 55 47 41 45 48 47U 18 18 17 17 18 20 18 19 19 19 17 15 16 18 17Lowe et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/1204579109 3 of 5Table S4. Representative glass composition data for distal CI tephra detected in the archaeological sites of Klissoura, Golema Pesht, andTabula TraianaLocality (unit) Klissoura (cryptotephra) Golema Pesht (cryptotephra) Tabula Traiana (cryptotephra)Major elements (WDS-EPMA, wt %)SiO2 59.94 60.35 60.49 60.68 61.18 60.57 60.88 60.88 61.04 61.11 60.96 61.00 61.30 61.40 61.63TiO2 0.39 0.45 0.41 0.47 0.46 0.38 0.40 0.46 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.40 0.43 0.34 0.43Al2O3 19.21 18.66 18.89 18.52 19.00 18.79 18.70 18.51 18.46 18.31 18.55 18.44 18.28 18.69 18.47FeO 3.03 3.25 2.93 3.00 3.11 2.93 2.93 2.99 3.00 3.06 2.89 2.86 3.47 2.87 2.65MnO 0.31 0.21 0.29 0.26 0.18 0.25 0.16 0.20 0.23 0.23 0.26 0.26 0.08 0.16 0.24MgO 0.34 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.33 0.30 0.62 0.34 0.30CaO 1.81 1.94 1.78 1.76 1.72 1.67 1.80 1.72 1.71 1.70 1.73 1.80 2.70 1.63 1.66Na2O 6.77 5.41 6.17 5.96 6.31 6.97 6.85 6.67 6.66 6.87 6.84 6.90 3.56 6.38 6.70K2O 7.29 8.49 7.61 7.98 6.63 7.25 7.17 7.44 7.35 7.14 7.09 7.07 8.77 7.19 7.02P2O5 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.12 0.04 0.03Total 97.32 96.00 98.08 97.51 95.64 96.14 98.28 97.57 98.36 98.68 97.74 99.06 97.42 98.45 99.17Cl (ppm) 7,100 7,100 8,600 8,500 8,500 — — — — — 7,113 7,431 5,425 7,634 7,040Trace elements (LA-ICP-MS, ppm)Rb 370 290 380 410 430 410 430 430 430 420 407 411 — 417 427Sr 14 18 19 20 16 17 19 19 22 18 18 20 — 22 22Y 34 32 50 51 51 54 52 52 51 53 52 49 — 54 53Zr 450 400 590 620 630 640 640 630 620 640 610 582 — 611 627Nb 93 86 106 114 115 112 114 113 113 115 107 111 — 108 116Ba 15 23 15 19 12 12 14 15 19 13 13 17 — 16 16La 87 74 113 120 120 120 121 121 119 122 117 112 — 116 122Ce 167 155 213 224 225 233 234 230 229 232 225 214 — 228 233Pr 17 15 21 22 23 23 23 23 23 23 24 22 — 23 24Nd 63 49 73 77 77 80 82 79 80 81 77 79 — 78 84Sm 10 11 13 12 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 12 — 14 13Eu 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.1 — — — — — — — — — —Gd 9.8 8.0 11.7 10.0 12.6 10.8 10.9 10.9 9.9 10.7 9.5 8.3 — 8.9 9.8Dy 5.9 5.6 8.3 9.0 9.5 9.6 9.5 9.4 9.1 9.7 9.0 9.0 — 8.4 9.4Er 4.0 3.9 4.9 4.7 5.0 5.3 5.5 5.3 5.1 5.4 5.4 4.9 — 5.1 4.9Yb 4.8 3.8 5.0 5.3 5.4 5.7 5.3 5.3 5.1 5.5 5.2 4.9 — 5.7 5.3Lu 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.8 — — — — — — — — — —Ta 3.2 3.7 5.5 5.3 5.7 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.3 5.7 5.3 4.7 — 4.7 5.5Th 30 25 44 48 47 50 50 51 48 51 50 43 — 44 48U 12 11 16 17 18 17 18 18 17 18 17 15 — 15 16Lowe et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/1204579109 4 of 5Table S5. Representative glass composition data for distal CI tephra detected in marine core LC-21 and the Tenaghi Philippon paludalsequenceLocality (unit)SecondarystandardStHs6/80-G ATHO-GLC21 marine core (visible layer) Tenaghi Philippon (visible layer) Mean 2σ Mean 2σMajor elements (WDS-EPMA, wt %) WDS-EPMA (n > 50)SiO2 61.98 62.19 62.09 61.79 62.00 59.82 60.80 61.01 61.24 61.69 63.74 0.76 75.46 0.87TiO2 0.46 0.41 0.43 0.49 0.44 0.67 0.42 0.35 0.40 0.37 0.72 0.10 0.25 0.07Al2O3 18.06 17.94 18.11 17.97 17.88 18.24 18.88 18.42 18.87 18.64 17.79 0.31 12.33 0.28FeO 3.09 3.17 2.98 3.08 3.29 4.29 3.02 3.56 3.03 2.83 4.34 0.28 3.27 0.33MnO 0.21 0.17 0.29 0.20 0.32 0.12 0.27 0.14 0.18 0.17 0.09 0.08 0.11 0.09MgO 0.34 0.35 0.29 0.28 0.31 1.07 0.30 0.70 0.30 0.32 1.99 0.12 0.10 0.05CaO 1.81 1.81 1.84 1.86 1.78 3.99 1.76 2.64 1.63 1.73 5.28 0.23 1.72 0.11Na2O 6.63 6.51 6.82 6.86 6.72 3.78 6.50 2.76 5.78 6.09 4.50 0.33 3.99 0.29K2O 7.41 7.45 7.16 7.46 7.25 7.45 7.09 9.89 7.56 7.23 1.30 0.09 2.71 0.11P2O5 — — — — — 0.17 0.03 0.17 0.08 0.04 0.17 0.07 0.03 0.05Total 94.79 96.56 94.91 96.71 94.65 97.61 95.37 96.37 97.52 95.54 — — — —Cl (ppm) — — — — — 3,300 7,700 2,900 7,600 7,300 200 190 364 275Trace elements (LA-ICP-MS, ppm) LA-ICP-MS (n > 10)Rb 480 490 490 480 460 290 460 280 430 450 31 1.0 67 3.4Sr 20 21 20 21 20 427 19 564 19 26 480 19 96 3.9Y 49 56 55 59 47 19 53 20 54 53 11 0.5 91 4.1Zr 598 693 674 715 580 190 660 180 630 660 110 5.0 500 24Nb 121 128 123 131 119 31 120 28 118 118 6.6 0.7 60 4.3Ba 17 15 17 15 15 372 15 657 15 26 300 15 560 23La 118 135 133 139 113 47 125 46 125 127 12 0.7 56 2.6Ce 235 259 248 267 221 87 240 86 233 239 25 1.3 123 7.0Pr 23 27 24 27 21 9 24 9 23 24 3.0 0.2 14 1.0Nd 77 90 83 90 75 34 83 34 81 83 12 1.0 62 3.5Sm 16 17 15 16 14 — — — — — 3.6 1.7 15 1.6Eu — 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.2 2.0 1.4 2.0 1.3 1.4 1.0 0.1 2.6 0.2Gd 12.3 10.7 10.5 11.3 9.9 4.9 9.8 4.6 9.8 11.0 3.3 1.7 15 1.6Dy 8.8 10.3 10.0 10.6 7.7 3.9 9.6 3.8 9.4 9.3 2.2 0.3 17 0.9Er 5.1 5.8 5.4 6.1 4.5 1.8 5.5 2.1 5.6 5.1 1.2 0.2 10 0.5Yb — 5.8 5.6 5.9 4.9 1.9 5.7 1.8 5.4 5.0 1.4 0.6 10 0.7Lu — 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.9 0.8 0.2 0.1 1.5 0.1Ta 5.0 6.2 5.4 6.2 5.3 1.8 5.5 1.3 5.1 5.8 0.5 0.2 3.8 0.2Th 42 55 50 55 42 15 50 13 49 54 2.2 0.2 7.3 0.6U 17 20 18 20 17 5 17 5 17 19 1.0 0.2 2.3 0.2Representative mean and 2σ precision from analysis of the StHs6/80-G and ATHO-G MPI-DING secondary standard glasses are also shown.Lowe et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/1204579109 5 of 5

Volcanic ash layers illuminate the resilience of Neanderthals and early Modern Humans to natural hazards

Volcanic ash layers illuminate the resilience of Neanderthals and early Modern Humans to natural hazards

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