A research paper on gender disparities  in the horticultural industry of Zimbabwe.Understanding sociological and gender issues is the key in developing the scale ol' horticultural production among smallholders. This paper is based on practical experience in working with smallholders in Zimbabwe, available information sources and personal experience from a communal upbringing. To date horticulture remains a small operation for most smallholders in Zimbabwe. Even in areas with irrigation facilities and well developed infrastructure, the scale of operation remains well below its potential. To understand this there is need to realize that horticulture is viewed by the smallholder as only one of myriad of other operations that demand his attention. The time and effort therefore given and the scale at which the operation is done depend on the importance rating attached to each enterprise. Horticulture, although a high input enterprise in labour and investment, still has a subsistence rating among many smallholders. With the high quality demanded for export it is rather viewed in terms of the hassle involved. Women smallholders find this more so as they have to shoulder more family responsibilities and jobs than their male counterparts

Shava, T.

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Smallholder
Horticulture
First published in 1997 by 
University of Zimbabwe Publications
P.O. Box MP 203 
Mount Pleasant 
Harare 
Zimbabwe
Typeset by University of Zimbabwe Publications 
Printed by Print Holdings (Pvt.) Ltd., Harare
IV
MARKETING AND TRANSPORT
9. Horticultural marketing in Zimbabwe: problems met by smallholders
and experience of the Mashonaland East Fruit and Vegetable Project
in addressing these..............................................................................................65
M. I. Sena
10. The cost and role of transport in smallholder horticultural production:
experiences from the Mashonaland East Fruit and Vegetable Project........... 78
C. K arim anzira  an d  A. Jaure
11. Marketing systems for smallholders: A comparison of assembly
markets in areas of production with farmer marketing at Mbare
Musika in Harare.................................................................................................. 91
A. Jaure
12. Competitive marketing strategies for smallholder horticultural
produce growers in Greater Harare.................................................................. 104
M. L. M atanda an d T. M utaviri
13. Horticultural crop production and marketing among smallholders
in Zimbabwe........................................................................................................ 122
N. E. Horn
14. Characteristics of four rural horticultural markets in the south-eastern
lowveld of Zimbabwe........................................................................................ 142
E. P. M azhangara, E. M anzungu an d  M. W. Brown
15. An analysis of the cabbage, onion, potato and tomato market
structure in Arumeru district o f Tanzania........................................................ 151
E. E. F igueroa an d  D. A. N yange
16. Evolution of Kenya’s smallholder French bean production...........................161
L. K im enye
Discussion on marketing and transport.........................................................................170
SOCIOLOGICAL AND GENDER ISSUES
17. Socio-cultural issues affecting women horticulturalists in Macheke
Resettlement Scheme and Mudzi and Mutoko D istricts................................ 177
C. M. M anyam e
18. Sociological and gender issues in smallholder horticulture: The 
division of labour and horticulture in relation to household welfare
and nutrition.............................................................................................................186
T. Shava
19. Women in home gardening................................................................................... 190
T. A. M taita
INTERDISCIPLINARY DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY OF 
CONSTRAINTS ON SMALLHOLDER HORTICULTURE
20. Interdisciplinary discussion on needs for research, extension, education
and infrastructural support development......................................................  199
21. Summary of constraints on smallholder horticulture....................................... 206
18
SOME SOCIOLOGICAL AND GENDER ISSUES IN 
SMALLHOLDER HORTICULTURE: THE DIVISION OF 
LABOUR, AND HORTICULTURE IN RELATION TO 
HOUSEHOLD WELFARE AND NUTRITION
T. Shava
Hortico Produce, P O Box HG 697, Highlands, Harare, Zimbabwe.
A B S T R A C T
Understanding socio logical and gender issues is the key in developing the scale ol' 
ho rticu ltu ra l production am ong sm allho lders. Th is  paper is based on practical 
experience in w orking w ith  smallholders in Z im babw e, availab le information sources 
and personal experience from a communal upbringing. To date horticulture remains a 
sm all operation for most smallholders in Zim babwe. Even  in areas w ith irrigation 
facilities and w ell developed infrastructure, the scale o f operation remains w ell below 
its potential. To understand this there is need to realize that horticulture is viewed by 
the sm allholder as on ly one o f m yriad o f other operations that demand his attention. 
The time and effort therefore given and the scale at which the operation is done depend 
on the importance rating attached to each enterprise. Horticulture, although a high 
input enterprise in labour and investment, still has a subsistence rating among many 
sm allholders. W ith  the high quality demanded for export it is rather view ed in terms 
o f the hassle involved. W om en smallholders find this more so as they have to shoulder 
more fam ily  responsibilities and jobs than their male counterparts.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
O ve r the past ten years horticulture in Z im babw e has experienced tremendous growth 
w ith production rising from less than 13,146 tonnes earning less than ZW $40m  pre 
1989 to the present estimated 30,154 tonnes expected to earn ZW $ 22 4m  in 1994 
(H P C  1994). Th is makes horticulture the fastest growing industry in Z im babw e with 
an annual growth rate in U S$  terms o f around 4 0 %  and overall contribution to the 
national econom y o f 1 % .  W h ile  it appears to be such a boom ing industry most o f this 
growth has been enjoyed in the large scale com m ercial sector. The smallholders on 
irrigation schemes, co-operatives, individuals and individual communal farmers have 
bare ly got o ff the ground, being held up in web o f factors; econom ic, political, 
leg islative and socio logical. A  careful examination and understanding o f  these factors 
are critica l in order to formulate po licy and develop a strategy to promote growth of, 
and boost production in, sm allholder horticulture. Attempts to examine independently 
each factor is d ifficu lt since no single factor is causative w ith a lot o f interaction 
between factors. Each  factor needs to be appropriately weighted and placed in the
Sociological and Gender Issues in Smallholder Horticulture 187
whole picture to be examined correctly. These factors form the basis o f this discussion. 
Case studies drawn from situations encountered during real life field work are included 
to demonstrate certain points.
T H E  N A T U R E  O F  S M A L L H O L D E R S
Sm allho lders are o f a different nature to large scale com m ercial farmers and must he 
viewed differently. Differences in financial viab ility and size are obvious. The approach 
to agricultural production is also different, particularly in respect to response to time 
factors and labour demands.
a. Time factors
Sm allholders experience serious time constraints and activities are prioritised according 
to their importance. Importance is based on the contribution an activity makes to 
household w elfare in terms o f income and nutrition, the amount o f “ hassle" invo lved 
and the labour demand. Horticulture among communal farmers and many smallholders 
is largely for subsistence, catering for household nutrition. W hereas this should not 
be the case w ith smallholders on irrigation schemes because o f  the money invested in 
irrigation, horticultural production has remained subsistence in nature. Excess is 
disposed o f on the local market for cash needs. Horticulture is seldom seen as a profit 
generating enterprise and because o f its subsistence nature has remained very small. 
In Z im babw e there has been little effort made to develop sm allholder horticulture 
beyond the subsistence level w ith most effort being directed towards staple food 
production.
b. Labour supply
For all production the sm allholder prefers supplying his own labour. He w ill not hire 
extra labour until strained to breaking point and beyond. He tends to struggle on his 
own for a long time before deciding to hire extra labour. The sm allholder as a result 
tends to look at farm ing activities in terms o f the hassle involved. This hassle-factor 
becomes very important in his choice o f which crops to grow. The sm allholder prefers 
a situation where all his crop enterprises combined give him m inim um  labour hassles.
c. Labour productivity
In the sm allholder situation it is the fam ily who provide the labour. Sm allho lder labour 
does not behave like hired labour. The sm allholder is both the boss and the labourer. 
On one hand enjoying the luxuries o f the boss and at the same time sharing the pains 
o f a labourer. In terms o f productivity hired labour is more productive than own 
sm allholder labour (U N D P / F A O . 1989).
d. Division of labour
A lte r divid ing his time between work and a lot o f other non-field and personal activities 
the sm allholder remains quite strained between activities. A s  a result the total number 
o f agricultural hours he has is much shorter than for hired labour. N o rm a lly  after 
other necessary activities only five to six hours per day remain for farming. Fo r women 
who shoulder many more responsibilities the number o f farm ing hours m ay be even 
shorter, as a result o f the time spent in collecting fuel and firewood, feeding the family
188 T. Shava
o f farm ing and have a lot more time availab le to them. Paradoxica lly  the wom en are 
nevertheless expected to carry out more o f the farming operations than men. In most 
eases the men do the land preparation, planting and spraying leaving the women to do 
the planting, weeding, irrigation and harvesting. The men choose the “ once o f f  duties 
a llow ing  more leisure. The wom en remain w ith the more mundane, time consuming 
tasks. The horticultural garden as a result o f these time constraints has not been 
developed to any size more than supplying the nutritional requirements o f the family. 
Consequently in many places even where effort has been made to develop horticulture, 
and irrigation and good infrastructure exists, the scale o f operation has remained lower 
than could potentially be achieved. A  case encountered during field work helps to 
bring out how gender issues in terms o f d ivision o f labour can cause serious production 
constraints.
M undotw e Irrigation scheme located in M us iiw a  comm unal lands in the B indura 
district o f Z im babw e has two sections, the arable crops section and the horticulture 
section. The horticulture section is d ivided by a road into two almost equal sections. 
Th is effective ly  divides the growers into men on one side and women on the other. 
The interesting observations arc the male side is very positive about work, they always 
personally call for duties, they have few complaints. On the other hand the female 
side seems less able to cope, sending in children in their stead. The wom en complain 
frequently. A  sim ple deduction from this case is that men have fewer other jobs to do 
so have more time to put a bit extra into farm ing hence are more positive and are more 
content. The women arc overloaded w ith extra responsibilities and so can not always 
personally attend to duties in the field and so send in children. They find it a hassle to 
do anything extra and arc more discontented. F ie ld  crops with less hassles are a more 
popular choice than horticulture despite the higher potential from horticulture.
T H E  S T A T U S  O F  H O R T IC U L T U R E  IN  S M A L L H O L D E R  P R O D U C T IO N
Cash crop horticulture has remained a low  priority activity among smallholders mainly 
because it has not been seriously considered for its cash potential but only in terms o f 
its nutritional contribution to the household. Consequently it has remained a very 
small scale operation, although a very important enterprise to the household, with 
m inim al time and attention devoted to it. A  look at a case in M utoko demonstrates 
this.
In  the 1992/3 drought which affected most o f Z im babw e. Hortico Produce were 
running a flow er seed production project alongside an Agricu ltura l Developm ent 
A uthority (A D A )  - European Com m unity ( E C )  sponsored fruit and vegetable project. 
W hen  the drought hit, the farmers largely abandoned the flower seed project putting 
more effort on the vegetables with a food value. The Bow er project prospered despite 
this neglect and the farmers had a cash bonus at the end o f the season from selling the 
seed. Fo r horticulture to develop it has to change from its subsistence status to be 
view ed as a cash earner. A s  a general observation most o f the places where the scale 
o f horticulture has developed to any extent are either where conscious effort has been 
made by governm ent or organisations and groups to develop horticulture or where 
droughts/overpopulation have forced farm ers to use lim ited water and land as 
e ffec tive ly  as possible, forcing then into cash horticultural crops.
Sociological and Gender Issues in Smallholder Horticulture 189
R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
Export horticulture w ith its high input requirement needs a lot o f support to develop.
A holistic approach to im proving the situation o f the sm allholder is one way to do it. 
There arc three basic needs that should be satisfied to develop the smallholder in this 
way: time, m oney and technical support.
a. Time
The fo llow ing  could give the sm allholder more time to concentrate on the more 
important aspects o f production.
i) M echanisation —  means less time is spent on the land
ii) Transport —  a good system o f transport means less time spent in movements 
to market produce.
ii i)  O rganised markets —  link ing  up with w ell established companies may 
provide a ready and easy marketing system so less time is spent in seeking 
markets for produce. A  good example is the A R D A /M u to ko  set up. where 
growers sim ply deliver to their local A R D A  packhouse.
b. Money
The sm allholder does not em ploy workers because he is trying to use a minimum 
input strategy. He is short o f cash. Em ploying  creates serious cash flow problems. 
M oney is needed for other things - school fees, fam ily welfare, hospital fees and 
leisure. Good cash returns from crops are a good incentive to encourage smallholders 
to em ploy labour. The farm er w ho is trying to m inim ize cash outflow  by doing 
everyth ing h im self w ill not cope. Q uality declines making the produce unsuitable for 
export. A  “ pay as you earn" loan system could also be used to encourage smallholders 
to produce and to employ, where inputs are loaned out to the growers at no initial cost 
and then later when crops start producing, loans are recovered from payments made 
up front to the growers.
c. Support
Support can be given by working out systems to encourage production and export 
horticulture.
Train ing  can be done for the sm allholder hut a thorough extension input is needed 
for the sm allholder to achieve export quality. A  vertical linkage w ith  established 
companies like Hortico  should also provide the strong technical support and training 
input that the sm allholder needs to develop.
R E F E R E N C E S
1. H.P.C. (1994). Personal Communication; Horticultural Promotion Council, c/o CFU , 
PO  Box 1241. Harare.
2. C N D P/EA O , (1989). Benchm ark survey parameters for improving &  expanding 
horticultural crop production in selected communal areas around three pilot sites in 
Zimbabwe 1. Preliminary results of a sub-sample survey. Horticultural occasional paper 
1. C N D P/EA O  project ZIM/86/021. Harare.
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Sociological and gender issues in smallholder horticulture: the division of labour and horticulture in relation to household welfare and nutrition

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Sociological and gender issues in smallholder horticulture: the division of labour and horticulture in relation to household welfare and nutrition

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