This thesis investigates some of the most important
6 constraints placed upon the mother foundresses of
Anglican and Roman Catholic religious communities in
Victorian England. It begins by considering how, reestablishing and establishing active, female, religious
foundations, these societies offered single women of the
time an unusually useful and dedicated life. It demonstrates that the foundresses initiated,
administered, and coordinated works of charity,
education, nursing, and other missions. They also sought
professional status for their members. Finally, they
were often supported in their work by lay men and women,
especially women. In general, however, they were
constrained in this work by society, the family, and the
clergy of their respective churches. Of these
constraints, anti-Catholicism was the most important.
It affected not only Roman Catholics, but also Anglo-
Catholics and caused both groups of religious to lead
what was, in many respects, a "hidden life". The
religious vows of poverty, chastity and obedience were
unduly condemned as undermining family values. And their
relationship with the clergy was problematic: bishops
were most concerned with their own jurisdiction and
authority and parish priests with their own influence.
Finally, secessions of sisters caused serious internal
problems, but none so severe as to bring about the abdication of the foundresses. And, paradoxically, if
obstacles beset the foundresses in establishing their
works at home, abroad they were welcomed by diocesans.
Hence, their work expanded around the world: throughout
the British Empire amongst the Anglicans; into
historically Catholic nations for the Romans; and to the
United States of America for both Anglicans and Roman
Catholics. In these places, foundresses furnish examples
of female leadership rare in the nineteenth century.
The thesis concludes by showing how tenaciously both
Anglican and Roman foundresses sought the recognition of
their respective churches, and yet in achieving it,
whether informally or formally, placed the most
significant constraint of all upon their work
