This study aims to explore the relation between fathers parenting styles (PS), self-esteem
(SE) and parental self-efficacy (PSE). Research points out the complex potential relations
between SE and PSE. Although PSE has been studied in association to PS, there’s a
research gap concerning the influence of fathers’ SE in this process. In a cross-sectional
study a questionnaire comprising personal data, PS, SE and PSE was completed by 157men
(age: M=38.41, SD=6.03) of pre-school/school age children. Hierarchical multiple regression
analyses and structural equation models (SEM) were performed. Like other studies,
authoritative PS is associated to positive outcomes, explaining 25% of PSE variance, in
opposition to permissiveness, associated to a negative sense of PSE. Education level and
SE emerge as significant predictors for fathers PS exerting indirect effects on PSE. Father’s
higher levels of SE and education are important individual variables to fathers-child relation
with implications on family affective climate and health

Brites, Rute

Hipólito, João

Nunes, Odete

Pires, Mónica

English

Repositório Institucional da Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

Fathers parenting role: self esteem, 
parenting styles and parental self-efficacy 
M. Pires*, R. Brites*, J. Hipólito*, & O. Nunes*  
* CIP-Psychology Research Center -  Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa 
ABSTRACT 
INTRODUCTION 
OBJECTIVES 
The aim of this exploratory, cross-sectional within subjects study, is to explore the relation 
between fathers PS, SE and PSE. To develop a fathers parenting model including individual 
variables and highlight the relevance of studying fathers perceptions in the scope of family 
functioning. 
METHODS 
RESULTS 
Hierarchical multiple regression was conducted excluding authoritarian PS (low correlation 
values) and family variables such as the number of children, child’s age and daily father-
child interaction time (ns correlations). A significant model emerged with permissive 
(X=24.07, SD=5.23) and authoritative (X=40.04, SD=5.37) PSs as PSE (X=4.01, SD=1.87) 
predictors variables (explaining 35.6% of variance) (Table 1).  
 
CONCLUSION 
 
Findings are consistent with previous research indicating parenting as a complex dynamic 
model influenced by several individual variables (internal or external resources).  Fathers 
with higher education tend to have a good self-esteem, implying that personal satisfaction 
and self-realization may play a part in a more balanced authoritative parenting.  leading to an 
increased self-efficacy in their parenting role.  Permissiveness and authoritativeness have 
opposite effects on self-efficacy feelings, in which responsiveness and controlled child-
rearing results on increased parenting fulfilment. Constrains concerning self-report measures 
with possible desirability effect and cross-sectional design should be addressed in future 
research. Nevertheless, present results contribute to understanding fathers parenting role 
enhancing the need to include fathers report in family and development studies.  
REFERENCES: 
 
Ardelt, M. & Eccles, J. (2001). Effects of mothers’ parental efficacy beliefs and promotive parenting strategies on inner-city youth. Journal of Family Issues, 22 (8), 944-972. DOI: 10.1177/019251301022008001 
Aunola, K., Nurmi, J.E., Onatsu-Arvilommi, T. & Pulkkinen, L. (1999). The role of parents’ self-esteem, mastery-orientation and social background in their parenting styles. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 40, 307-317. DOI: 10.1111/1467-9450.404131 
Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Development Psychology Monograph, 4 (1), 1-103. 
Belsky, J., Crnic, K. & Gable, S. (1995). The determinants of coparenting in families with todler boys: spousel differences and daily hassles. Child development, 66, 629-642. 
Brites, R., Martins, H. & Nunes, O. (2011). Escala de Auto-Eficácia Parental: validação e estudos metodológicos. Actas do VIII Congresso Ibero Americano de Avaliação Psicológica/5ª Conferência Internacional de Avaliação Psicológica. Lisboa, Universidade de 
Lisboa. 
Buri, J., Kirchner, P. A. & Walsh, J. M. (2001). Familial correlates of self.esteem in young American adults. The Journal of Social Psychology, 127 (6), 583-588. 
Darling, N. & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: An integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 487-496. 
Hofferth, S. L., Pleck, J. H., Goldsheider, F., Curtin, S. & Hrapczynski, K. (2013). Family structure and mens motivation for parenthood in the United States. In N. J. Cabrera & C. S. Tamis-Lemonda (Eds.) (2013). Handbook of father involvement: multidisciplinary 
perspectives (2nd ed.) (pp.57-80). New York, NY: Routledge.  
Murdock, K. (2012). An examination of parental self-efficacy among mothers and fathers. Psychology of Men & Masculinity. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0027009 
Nicholson, J. S., Howard K. S. & Borkowski, J. G. (2008). Mental models for parenting: correlates of metaparenting among fathers of young children. Fathering, Vol. 6 (1), 39-61. DOI: 10.3149/fth.0601.39 
Pires, M., Jesus, S. & Hipólito, J. (2010). Validação preliminar do Questionário de Estilos Parentais para Pais. Actas do VII Simpósio Nacional de Investigação em Psicologia (pp. 538-552). Braga: Universidade do Minho. www.actassnip2010.com 
Pires, M., Jesus, S. N. & Hipólito, H. (2011). Questionário de Estilos Parentais para Pais (PAQ-P) - Estudos de Validação. Ferreira, A. S.; Verhaeghe, A.; Silva, D. R., Almeida, L. S.; Lima, R. & Fraga, S. (2011). Actas do VIII Congresso Iberoamericano de 
avaliação/evaluación Psicológica – XV Conferência Internacional de Avaliação Psicológica: Formas e Contextos. (pp. 760-770). Lisboa: Sociedade Portuguesa de Psicologia. 
Scheel, M. & Rieckmann, T. (1998). An empirically derived description of self-efficacy and empowerment for parents of children identified as psychologically disordered. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 26, 15-27. DOI: 10.1080/01926189808251083 
Seward, R. R. & Richter, R. (2008). International research on fathering: an expanding horizon. Fathering, Vol. 6 (2), 87-91. DOI: 10.3149/fth.0602.87 
Thomas, J. N., Feeley, N. N. & Grier, P (2009). The Perceived Parenting Self-Efficacy of First-Time Fathers Caring for Very-Low-Birth-Weight Infants. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, Vol. 32 (4), 180-199.  
Wade, S. M. (2004). Parenting influences on intellectual development and education achievement. In M. Hoghughi, & N. Long (Eds.) (2004). Handbook of parenting: theory and research for practice. London: SAGE. 
This study aims to explore the relation between fathers parenting styles (PS), self-esteem 
(SE) and parental self-efficacy (PSE). Research points out the complex potential relations 
between SE and PSE. Although PSE has been studied in association to PS, there’s a 
research gap concerning the influence of fathers’ SE in this process. In a cross-sectional 
study a questionnaire comprising personal data, PS, SE and PSE was completed by 157men 
(age: M=38.41, SD=6.03) of pre-school/school age children. Hierarchical multiple regression 
analyses and structural equation models (SEM) were performed. Like other studies, 
authoritative PS is associated to positive outcomes, explaining 25% of PSE variance, in 
opposition to permissiveness, associated to a negative sense of PSE. Education level and 
SE emerge as significant predictors for fathers PS exerting indirect effects on PSE. Father’s 
higher levels of SE and education are important individual variables to fathers-child relation 
with implications on family affective climate and health. 
Participants 
 
A convenience sample of 157 fathers from 22-65 years old (M= 38.41, SD= 6.03), mostly 
married or cohabiting 77.4% (n= 120) with 1 to 4 children (M= 1.75, SD= 0.75). 40.4% has a 
higher education level (Figures 1 and 2). 
 
Figure 1. Marital status demographics                    Figure 1. Educational level demographics 
 
 
 
Table 1. 
Hierarchical Multiple Regression With Authoritative and Permissive PS Predicting PSE Dependent 
Variable 
  Model B SE Beta t R2 AdjR2 ΔR2 
1 Authoritative  .174 .025 .497 6.949*** .247 .242   
2 
Authoritative .140 .024 .400 5.781***       
Permissive -.124 .025 -.343 -4.959*** .356 .347 .109 
F (2, 146) = 40.313
*** 
*** p < .001 
SEM were conducted using SE, PS to test their influence on PSE. Fit indices suggested that 
the model fit the data moderately (CMIN/DF=6.80; CFI=.91), however, parameter estimates 
implies model improvement to data adjustment. The second model including education level 
(EL)  presented a better fit, inferring the effect of schooling on self-evaluation. (Figure 3) 
 
Figure 3. SEM relating SE, EL and PS with PSE 
 
Χ2 (5) = 14.3, p < .014 
CMIN/DF = 2.85 
NFI = .902 
CFI= .929  
Findings shows that authoritativeness accounts for higher PSE, while permissiveness has the 
opposite effect. SEM was used to include individual resources, namely SE and EL. EL has an 
small effect on SE and no effect on PS, nonetheless it underlies the importance of cultural 
level and information as an empowerment personal resource.  
Parenting styles (PS) defined as different expectations regarding child-rearing that sets out 
family emotional climate, are understood in a contextual parenting model integrating 
individual and external variables (Baumrind, 1971; Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Belsky, Crnic 
& Gable, 1995). Lower socioeconomic status, educational level and SE have been 
associated to negative outcomes in children, authoritarian and permissive-negligent PS and 
harsh parenting practices. Thus authoritativeness and permissive-indulgent PS with a well 
balanced responsiveness and control towards child-rearing are associated with a better 
family climate promoting child development (Wade, 2004). 
Aunola, Nurmi, Onatsu-Arvilommi and Pulkkinen (1999) and Pires (2010,2011), found 
mothers to be more authoritative and fathers more authoritarian. Higher educational levels 
and SE partially explain authoritativeness; hence these are relevant individual variables. 
Although few researches include fathers, over the past decades, men are more involved in 
everyday family life and are more active in their parenting role making this a research field 
with an expanding interest for family studies (Murdock, 2012; Seward & Richter, 2008). 
Hofferth, Pleck, Goldsheider, Curtin and Hrapczynski (2013) found fathering attitudes such 
as warmth and control to contribute for family structure, increased father involvement and 
behavioral changes in two parents household. Nicholson, Howard and Borkowski (2008) 
also highlight the value of growing with a positive father presence, helping to set out boy’s 
metaparenting and his future role as a father. 
Like PS, parenting self-efficacy (PSE) regarding parents’ beliefs in their ability to educate 
and nurture their children in a positive way (Scheel & Rieckman, 1998), has been linked to 
positive behavioral outcomes (Thomas, Feeley & Grier, 2009). For fathers, 
supportive/engaged parenting behaviors contribute to  PSE (Murdock, 2012).Parents with a 
high PSE tend to be more secure in their parenting role, more optimistic, authoritative and 
consistent in parent-child interactions (Ardelt & Eccles, 2001; Aunola et al., 1999; Scheel & 
Rieckman, 1998). 
 
Measures 
 
Parental Self-efficacy Scale (Brites, Martins & Nunes, 2011): self-reported 44 item scale 
which assess  parents’ perception of their overall parenting skills and performance (sample 
α=.74).  
S.E.R.T.H.UAL – Self-esteem Scale (Nunes, et al., 2006) 60 item self-reported measure of 
self-esteem (sample α=.86).  
PAQ-P (Parental Authority Questionnaire for Parents) (Pires, 2010, 2011): Portuguese 
validation and parents’ report adaptation of PAQ. A 30 item self-report scale with 3 scores for 
each PS (permissive, authoritative and authoritarian) (sample’s α=.64;α=.83; α=.74).  
 
 


Fathers parenting role: self-esteem, parenting styles and parental self-efficacy

Camões - Repositório Institucional da Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

Fathers parenting role: self esteem, parenting styles and parental self-efficacy M. Pires*, R. Brites*, J. Hipólito*, & O. Nunes*  * CIP-Psychology Research Center -  Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVES The aim of this exploratory, cross-sectional within subjects study, is to explore the relation between fathers PS, SE and PSE. To develop a fathers parenting model including individual variables and highlight the relevance of studying fathers perceptions in the scope of family functioning. METHODS RESULTS Hierarchical multiple regression was conducted excluding authoritarian PS (low correlation values) and family variables such as the number of children, child’s age and daily father-child interaction time (ns correlations). A significant model emerged with permissive (X=24.07, SD=5.23) and authoritative (X=40.04, SD=5.37) PSs as PSE (X=4.01, SD=1.87) predictors variables (explaining 35.6% of variance) (Table 1).   CONCLUSION  Findings are consistent with previous research indicating parenting as a complex dynamic model influenced by several individual variables (internal or external resources).  Fathers with higher education tend to have a good self-esteem, implying that personal satisfaction and self-realization may play a part in a more balanced authoritative parenting.  leading to an increased self-efficacy in their parenting role.  Permissiveness and authoritativeness have opposite effects on self-efficacy feelings, in which responsiveness and controlled child-rearing results on increased parenting fulfilment. Constrains concerning self-report measures with possible desirability effect and cross-sectional design should be addressed in future research. Nevertheless, present results contribute to understanding fathers parenting role enhancing the need to include fathers report in family and development studies.  REFERENCES:  Ardelt, M. & Eccles, J. (2001). Effects of mothers’ parental efficacy beliefs and promotive parenting strategies on inner-city youth. Journal of Family Issues, 22 (8), 944-972. DOI: 10.1177/019251301022008001 Aunola, K., Nurmi, J.E., Onatsu-Arvilommi, T. & Pulkkinen, L. (1999). The role of parents’ self-esteem, mastery-orientation and social background in their parenting styles. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 40, 307-317. DOI: 10.1111/1467-9450.404131 Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Development Psychology Monograph, 4 (1), 1-103. Belsky, J., Crnic, K. & Gable, S. (1995). The determinants of coparenting in families with todler boys: spousel differences and daily hassles. Child development, 66, 629-642. Brites, R., Martins, H. & Nunes, O. (2011). Escala de Auto-Eficácia Parental: validação e estudos metodológicos. Actas do VIII Congresso Ibero Americano de Avaliação Psicológica/5ª Conferência Internacional de Avaliação Psicológica. Lisboa, Universidade de Lisboa. Buri, J., Kirchner, P. A. & Walsh, J. M. (2001). Familial correlates of self.esteem in young American adults. The Journal of Social Psychology, 127 (6), 583-588. Darling, N. & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: An integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 487-496. Hofferth, S. L., Pleck, J. H., Goldsheider, F., Curtin, S. & Hrapczynski, K. (2013). Family structure and mens motivation for parenthood in the United States. In N. J. Cabrera & C. S. Tamis-Lemonda (Eds.) (2013). Handbook of father involvement: multidisciplinary perspectives (2nd ed.) (pp.57-80). New York, NY: Routledge.  Murdock, K. (2012). An examination of parental self-efficacy among mothers and fathers. Psychology of Men & Masculinity. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0027009 Nicholson, J. S., Howard K. S. & Borkowski, J. G. (2008). Mental models for parenting: correlates of metaparenting among fathers of young children. Fathering, Vol. 6 (1), 39-61. DOI: 10.3149/fth.0601.39 Pires, M., Jesus, S. & Hipólito, J. (2010). Validação preliminar do Questionário de Estilos Parentais para Pais. Actas do VII Simpósio Nacional de Investigação em Psicologia (pp. 538-552). Braga: Universidade do Minho. www.actassnip2010.com Pires, M., Jesus, S. N. & Hipólito, H. (2011). Questionário de Estilos Parentais para Pais (PAQ-P) - Estudos de Validação. Ferreira, A. S.; Verhaeghe, A.; Silva, D. R., Almeida, L. S.; Lima, R. & Fraga, S. (2011). Actas do VIII Congresso Iberoamericano de avaliação/evaluación Psicológica – XV Conferência Internacional de Avaliação Psicológica: Formas e Contextos. (pp. 760-770). Lisboa: Sociedade Portuguesa de Psicologia. Scheel, M. & Rieckmann, T. (1998). An empirically derived description of self-efficacy and empowerment for parents of children identified as psychologically disordered. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 26, 15-27. DOI: 10.1080/01926189808251083 Seward, R. R. & Richter, R. (2008). International research on fathering: an expanding horizon. Fathering, Vol. 6 (2), 87-91. DOI: 10.3149/fth.0602.87 Thomas, J. N., Feeley, N. N. & Grier, P (2009). The Perceived Parenting Self-Efficacy of First-Time Fathers Caring for Very-Low-Birth-Weight Infants. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, Vol. 32 (4), 180-199.  Wade, S. M. (2004). Parenting influences on intellectual development and education achievement. In M. Hoghughi, & N. Long (Eds.) (2004). Handbook of parenting: theory and research for practice. London: SAGE. This study aims to explore the relation between fathers parenting styles (PS), self-esteem (SE) and parental self-efficacy (PSE). Research points out the complex potential relations between SE and PSE. Although PSE has been studied in association to PS, there’s a research gap concerning the influence of fathers’ SE in this process. In a cross-sectional study a questionnaire comprising personal data, PS, SE and PSE was completed by 157men (age: M=38.41, SD=6.03) of pre-school/school age children. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses and structural equation models (SEM) were performed. Like other studies, authoritative PS is associated to positive outcomes, explaining 25% of PSE variance, in opposition to permissiveness, associated to a negative sense of PSE. Education level and SE emerge as significant predictors for fathers PS exerting indirect effects on PSE. Father’s higher levels of SE and education are important individual variables to fathers-child relation with implications on family affective climate and health. Participants  A convenience sample of 157 fathers from 22-65 years old (M= 38.41, SD= 6.03), mostly married or cohabiting 77.4% (n= 120) with 1 to 4 children (M= 1.75, SD= 0.75). 40.4% has a higher education level (Figures 1 and 2).  Figure 1. Marital status demographics                    Figure 1. Educational level demographics    Table 1. Hierarchical Multiple Regression With Authoritative and Permissive PS Predicting PSE Dependent Variable   Model B SE Beta t R2 AdjR2 ΔR2 1 Authoritative  .174 .025 .497 6.949*** .247 .242   2 Authoritative .140 .024 .400 5.781***       Permissive -.124 .025 -.343 -4.959*** .356 .347 .109 F (2, 146) = 40.313*** *** p < .001 SEM were conducted using SE, PS to test their influence on PSE. Fit indices suggested that the model fit the data moderately (CMIN/DF=6.80; CFI=.91), however, parameter estimates implies model improvement to data adjustment. The second model including education level (EL)  presented a better fit, inferring the effect of schooling on self-evaluation. (Figure 3)  Figure 3. SEM relating SE, EL and PS with PSE  Χ2 (5) = 14.3, p < .014 CMIN/DF = 2.85 NFI = .902 CFI= .929  Findings shows that authoritativeness accounts for higher PSE, while permissiveness has the opposite effect. SEM was used to include individual resources, namely SE and EL. EL has an small effect on SE and no effect on PS, nonetheless it underlies the importance of cultural level and information as an empowerment personal resource.  Parenting styles (PS) defined as different expectations regarding child-rearing that sets out family emotional climate, are understood in a contextual parenting model integrating individual and external variables (Baumrind, 1971; Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Belsky, Crnic & Gable, 1995). Lower socioeconomic status, educational level and SE have been associated to negative outcomes in children, authoritarian and permissive-negligent PS and harsh parenting practices. Thus authoritativeness and permissive-indulgent PS with a well balanced responsiveness and control towards child-rearing are associated with a better family climate promoting child development (Wade, 2004). Aunola, Nurmi, Onatsu-Arvilommi and Pulkkinen (1999) and Pires (2010,2011), found mothers to be more authoritative and fathers more authoritarian. Higher educational levels and SE partially explain authoritativeness; hence these are relevant individual variables. Although few researches include fathers, over the past decades, men are more involved in everyday family life and are more active in their parenting role making this a research field with an expanding interest for family studies (Murdock, 2012; Seward & Richter, 2008). Hofferth, Pleck, Goldsheider, Curtin and Hrapczynski (2013) found fathering attitudes such as warmth and control to contribute for family structure, increased father involvement and behavioral changes in two parents household. Nicholson, Howard and Borkowski (2008) also highlight the value of growing with a positive father presence, helping to set out boy’s metaparenting and his future role as a father. Like PS, parenting self-efficacy (PSE) regarding parents’ beliefs in their ability to educate and nurture their children in a positive way (Scheel & Rieckman, 1998), has been linked to positive behavioral outcomes (Thomas, Feeley & Grier, 2009). For fathers, supportive/engaged parenting behaviors contribute to  PSE (Murdock, 2012).Parents with a high PSE tend to be more secure in their parenting role, more optimistic, authoritative and consistent in parent-child interactions (Ardelt & Eccles, 2001; Aunola et al., 1999; Scheel & Rieckman, 1998).  Measures  Parental Self-efficacy Scale (Brites, Martins & Nunes, 2011): self-reported 44 item scale which assess  parents’ perception of their overall parenting skills and performance (sample α=.74).  S.E.R.T.H.UAL – Self-esteem Scale (Nunes, et al., 2006) 60 item self-reported measure of self-esteem (sample α=.86).  PAQ-P (Parental Authority Questionnaire for Parents) (Pires, 2010, 2011): Portuguese validation and parents’ report adaptation of PAQ. A 30 item self-report scale with 3 scores for each PS (permissive, authoritative and authoritarian) (sample’s α=.64;α=.83; α=.74).    

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Fathers parenting role: self-esteem, parenting styles and parental self-efficacy

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