Selleri, Stefano

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96 The Radio Science Bulletin No 360 (March 2017)Claude Chappe and the FirstTelecommunication Network (Without Electricity)Stefano SelleriDepartment of Information EngineeringUniversity of FlorenceVia di S. Marta,3, I-50139, Florence, ItalyE-mail: stefano.selleri@unifi .itAbstractThis paper briefl y reviews the essential stages of the telecommunication networks that have developed, mainly at the European level, before the discovery of electricity and the invention of the electric telegraph. In particular, it focuses on the most widespread of these, the only one that really deserves the name of “telecommunication network,” the one implemented by Claude Chappe in France between the late 1700s and early 1800s.1. IntroductionNowadays, we are all able to instantly communicate with almost every other human being on the planet, thanks to the pervasive fi xed and mobile telecommunication networks. This possibility, which now seems completely natural, was born with the creation of telegraphy by Carl Friedrich Gauss, Wilhelm Eduard Weber, William Fothergill Cooke, Charles Wheatstone, David Alter, and the ultimate commercial success of Samuel Morse’s telegraph system (1837) [1]. Electric-based telecommunications rapidly fl ourished with the subsequent inventions of the telephone by Antonio Meucci in 1854 [2, 3], followed by Alexander Graham Bell’s patents in 1876 and 1877 [4, 5], and, of the radio by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz in 1888 and Guglielmo Marconi in 1895 [6, 7].Even if all these methods of communications are inextricably linked to electricity and electromagnetism, this does not mean that telecommunications were born with them. The need to communicate with people far away has characterized all civilizations and throughout history. Each suffi  ciently evolved centralized state tried to set up its own communication network. However, these networks were, with rare exceptions, postal networks, with the exchange of written messages at the top speed technologically available: pigeons and horses.True telecommunications are instead something where information, rather than a physical, material object, is delivered. The earliest systems of true telecommunications were very rough. In the Persian Empire, the horse-change post stations also had a signaling beacon associated with them. This allowed the much faster sending of elementary messages (yes/no or on/off : a bit, in modern terms) by lighting the beacons in the chain. This beacon-based system remained for a long time the only form of telecommunication. Its usage was also testifi ed to by bas-reliefs on Trajan’s Column in Rome (113 A.D.), which shows the use of towers with fi res on mobile poles. Polybius also described some more-complex systems based on multiple torches and synchronized clepsydrae [water clocks], but there is no evidence they were ever used in practice [8]. Much later, in the Renaissance, letter-based coding was introduced, conveyed via light fl ashes [9] or on a few reconfi gurable symbols [10]. Regardless, these systems were somewhat awkward and never got through.Figure 1. Claude Chappe [December 25, 1763, Br ûlon, France – January 23, 1805, Paris, France] (from [11])The Radio Science Bulletin No 360 (March 2017) 972. The Chappe SystemThe man who actually linked his name to the fi rst modern telecommunication network is Claude Chappe (Figure 1). Chappe, born on December 25, 1763, was the grandson of a Baron. He was supposed to become a clergyman, but at the outcome of the French revolution (1789-1799), he switched to the career of inventor. Toward the end of 1790, he devised a system based on synchronized clocks (Figure 2), similar to one of the many theoretically enunciated by Polybius. Transmitting and receiving clocks had a hand and numbers on their quadrants, and the hands were to be kept synchronized. When the hand at the transmitting side was on the number to be transmitted, a sound signal was issued. The same number was of course indicated by the synchronized clock on the receiving station, and the sound signal allowed people on the receiving side to take note of it. Figure 3 shows the description, written by Claude Chappe’s brother, Ignace [11].During an offi  cial demonstration on March 2, 1791, Chappe used a painted wooden sign, white on one side and black on the other, in place of sound signals (Figure 2 shows this panel). This allowed a distance of over 10 miles between the two stations. Claude Chappe called this fi rst device “tachygraphe” (ancient Greek: fast writer), and decided to propose it to the French Government for nation-wide employment. Chappe also very early changed the name of his invention from tachygraphe to télégraphe (ancient Greek: remote writer).The system was not substantially diff erent from one described by Polybius. It had his weak point in the need to have a series of perfectly synchronized clocks. Chappe himself was not too pleased with the pendulum system. After some other experimental communications, he designed a new transmitter that had a rectangular wooden structure with fi ve sliding panels that could be shown individually or obscured by pulleys. The fi ve panels gave birth to a binary code with 32 possible combinations, more than three times the symbols used in the previous system.Nevertheless, the panels were not satisfactory for Chappe, who realized that elongated objects would be more visible from a distance with respect to the panels. The solution at which he arrived at the end was that of a vertical axis, at the top of which a mobile bar was hinged. To both ends of this bar were hinged two shorter bars, they also being mobile. Reciprocal rotations were controlled by a series of pulleys and cranks (Figure 4). The description of the development, also from a political point of view, we still fi nd in the book by Ignace Chappe (Figure 5).Figure 2. An engraving, ba sed on suppositions and prob-ably unauthentic, dating back to the XIX century, of the fi rst telegraph devised  by Claude Chappe (from [11]).Figure 3. The text describing the fi rst telegraph by Claude Chappe, written by his brother Ignace (from [12, pp. 123-124]). English translation: “The fi rst telegraph communication which they (the Chappe brothers) performed together was estab-lished by two pendulum clocks, kept in perfect sync. The dials of the watches were divided into ten areas, each bearing a cardinal number. When the seconds hand went to the number you wish to transmit a sound was produced, that announced the recipient that the number that was indicated by the hand of his watch, at the instant in which the sound was heard, was signifi cant. Compiling an appropriate dictionary associating numbers and words so as to convey every thought.”98 The Radio Science Bulletin No 360 (March 2017)Claude Chappe established that the rotations of the three movable bars was to be made in 45° steps. This defi ned four positions for the main beam, and eight for each of the secondary beams (Figures 4 and 6), for a total of 256 diff erent symbols. He called these devices “sémaphores” (ancient Greek: sign bearer).Meanwhile, France was going through that stage of the revolution that eventually brought the downfall of the monarchy. Chappe’s studies on the “sémaphores” system were well regarded by the Assembly but opposed by the people. In a riot, they destroyed the experimental installations in the park of Menil-Montant in 1792, believing them to be some odd monarchical device. Chappe thought it well to put his own equipment under the protection of the Assembly (September 11, 1972). The Legislative Assembly was replaced on September 21, 1792, by the National Convention. Ignace Chappe, a member of the Assembly, was not confi rmed to the Convention. This led to a stoppage of the telegraph development until April 1, 1793, when the Convention decided to fund the experiments. On July 12, 1793, the demonstration of the telegraph “sémaphores” in the presence of members of the Commission appointed by the Convention fi nally took place.3. The NetworkAfter the demonstration, things began to accelerate. On July 26, 1973, the Convention approved the establishment of the “Telegraphs of the French State.” On August 4, 1793, the Convention passed a loan of 58,400 francs for the construction of the fi rst line: fi fteen stations, from Paris to Lille. On September 24, 1793, Chappe had carte blanche to use any tower or existing house, cutting down all interfering trees, to hire staff , and to roll out a regulation for the “French Telegraph.” Chappe was also appointed “Telegraph Engineer,” and was given a monthly salary of 600 francs for his services. In this context, Chappe Figure 4. An engraving based on the ac-tual design of the device devised by Claude Chappe for his telecommunication network (from [11]). Figure 5. The text describing the development of the telegraph and its political issues, writ-ten by Ignace Chappe (from [12, pp. 126]). English translation: “Their research (of the Chappe brothers) has not stopped, and reached the consciousness, some time later, that the elongated bodies are more visible than the plates previously used. The telegraph form was then fi nalized, and the invention was presented to the Legislative Assembly (in the Thursday night session, March 22, 1792). The Assembly referred the matter to its Committee of Education. Subsequent events prevented the Committee from dealing with it and the fi rst report was not written down before April 4, 1793. In this report Claude Chappe was autho-rized to build three test stations; the Chappes positioned them at Menil-Montant, at Écouen and at Saint-Martin-du-Tertre, seven leagues from Paris.”The Radio Science Bulletin No 360 (March 2017) 99published the fi rst manual containing signal coding for transmission on his telegraph lines. The manual contained 8464 diff erent messages that could be transmitted, obtained by pairing individual symbols.These were much less than the 256 × 256 possible pairs. However, Chappe had noticed diffi  culties during transmissions due to erroneous recognition of those signals corresponding to the perfect alignment, inward or outward, Figure 6. The fi nal 92 beam positions of the Chappe code [Anne Goldenberg, Creative Commons License].Figure 7a. The French optical telecommu-nication network at its maximum extent, in France and Belgium [14]. Figure 7b. The French optic al telecommunication network at its maximum extent in Italy [14].100 The Radio Science Bulletin No 360 (March 2017)of the two shortest beams. He hence had reduced the original 256 possible confi gurations to 98 the fi rst time, and later to only 92 (Figure 6). Considering the signals in pairs, this led to 8464 possibilities.On April 30, 1794, after only one year from the resolution of the Convention, the Paris-Lille line was completed, and tests were started. There were 18 stations, including two in Paris and one in Lille.On July 16, 1794, the line was offi  cially opened. The towers were built at a distance of 10 km to 15 km from each other, and formed a line that extended along 190 km. At the beginning, the transmission occurred at the speed of a signal per minute.Since then, growth was unstoppable (Figure 7, [12]):1794  from Paris to Lille  190 km1794  from Paris to Landau and Strasbourg 128 km1798  from Lille to Dunkerque    64 km1798  from Paris to Brest  210 km1799  from Strasbourg to Hunigue   96 km1803  from Lille to Brussels    96 km1803  from Lille to Boulogne   80 km1804  from Paris to Dijon and Lyon  370 km1804  from Lyon to Turin  250 km1804  from Turin to Milan 100 km1805  from Lyon to Toulon 305 kmAs one can note from the list, the development was given new impetus when Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor in 1804. He understood the enormous potential of the telegraph network.Claude Chappe was not without his critics. Many attacked him claiming to have invented the telegraph before him, including Abraham-Louis Breguet, the renowned clockmaker who had collaborated with the construction of the Chappe “sémaphores” prototype. Other claims arrived from Agustin de Betancourt and other people who had unsuccessfully off ered alternative schemes. In the last years of his life, Chappe particularly suff ered from these criticisms, and fell into depression and committed suicide in 1805 [12].4. The End of Optical SystemsFor most of the nineteenth century, telecommunication networks based on optical signaling continued to expand, even after the death of Claude Chappe (1905) and the fall of Napoleon (1915). Only in France:1809 Brussels to Antwerp 40 km1809 Antwerp to Vlissingen 72 km1810 Antwerp to Amsterdam 128 km1810 Milan to Venice 241 km1813 Metz to Mainz 225 km1816 Lille to Calais 80 km1821 Lyon to Toulon 305 km1823 Paris to Bordeaux 507 km1823 Bordeaux to Bayonne 160 km1823 Avranches to Nantes 157 km1825 Paris to Lille (expanded) 190 km 1828  Avignon to Perpignan 209 km1833  Avranches to Cherbourg 108 km1834 Bordeaux to Toulouse 205 km1834 Toulouse to Narbonne 127 km1834 Narbonne to Montpellier 84 km1834 Montpellier to Avignon 80 km1840 Boulogne to Calais   32 km1840 Narbonne to Perpignan   54 km1840 Calais to Boulogne   40 km1840 Dijon to Besancon   72 km1844 Bordeaux to Agen (replaced) 145 km1845 Boulogne to Eu  100 km1846 Bayonne to Behobie   30 kmThe possibility of transmitting signals by means of electricity was yet in the air, starting with Gauss and Weber (1933). Morse devised in 1832, experienced in 1835, and protected with a caveat on September 28, 1837, a single-wire technique signifi cantly cheaper than the other technique proposed. This technique came to fruition in 1844 to fi nally be tested over large distances and fully patented in 1849 [15].With its optical systems, Europe resisted the introduction of the electrical telegraph, which indeed spread quickly in United States. The country that resisted the introduction of the electric telegraph most was, understandably, France. In 1864, there were still 24 optical stations, fl anked by 174 electric stations. The optical stations were used where it was diffi  cult to lay electric cables. Only in 1881 were the last three stations for optical signaling dismantled.5. ConclusionsThe most signifi cant telecommunication network ever realized before the advent of the electrical telegraph was the network initially set up by Claude Chappe. At its apex, it encompassed several thousand kilometers. It connected the main cities of France and northern Italy, and was mimicked by similar systems in England, Germany, and Sweden. The development of the electric telegraph in the thirties of the nineteenth century marked the end of the short service life of the optical telegraph.6. Bibliography1. J. J. Fahie, A History of Electric Telegraphy to the Year 1837, London, E. & F. N. Spon, 1884. 2. B. Catania, Antonio Meucci – L’Inventore e il suo Tempo - Da Firenze a L’Avana, Vol. 1, [Antonio Meucci, the The Radio Science Bulletin No 360 (March 2017) 101Inventor and His Time – From Florence to Havana], Roma: Seat - Divisione STET, Editoria per la Comu-nicazione, 1994. 3. B. Catania , Antonio Meucci – L’Inventore e il suo Tempo - New York 1850-1871, Vol. 2 [Antonio Meucci, the Inventor and His Time – New York 1850-1871, Volume 2], Torino, Seat - Divisione STET, 1996.4. A. G. Bell, US Patent 174465, “Improvement in Teleg-raphy,” February 14, 1876.5. A. G. Bell, US Patent 186787, “Improvement in Electric Telegraphy,” January 30, 1877.6. G. S. Smith, “An Analysis of Hertz’s Experimentum Crucis on Electromagnetic Waves,” IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, 58, 5, October 2016, pp. 96-108.7. G. Pelosi, S. Selleri, and B. Valotti, “From Poldhu to the Italian Station of Coltano: Marconi and the First Years of Transcontinental Wireless,” IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, 46, 3, June 2004, pp. 47-54.8. Polibio, Histories, Book X, Cap. 44,45 (ca. 220-146 A.C.), London, Macmillan, Trad. Ing. di Evelyn S. Shuckburgh,1889. 9. F. Kessler, Unterschiedliche bisshero mehrern Theils Secreta oder Verborgene, Geheime Kunste [Various and Up to Now Hidden, Secret Arts], Oppenheim (D), 1616.10. R. Hooke, “Dr. Hook’s Discourse to the Royal Society, May 21, 1684 Shewing a Way How to Communicate One’s Mind at Great Distances,” in Philosophical Ex-periments and Observations of the Late Eminent Dr. Robert Hooke, William Derham (ed.), London, W. and T. Innys, 1726, pp. 142-150.11. L. Figuier, L’Elettricità e le sue applicazioni [Electric-it y and its Applications], Milan (I), F.lli Treves, 1884.12. I. U. J. Chappe, Histoire de la télégraphie [History of the Telegraph], Paris, L’Imprimerie de  Crapelet, 1824. 13. G. J. Holzmann and B. Pehrson, The Early History of Data Networks, Hoboken, NJ, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.14. Multiple Authors, La Télégraphie Chappe [Chappe Telegraph], Fédération Nationale des Associations de Personnel des Postes  et Télécommunications pour la Recherche Historique (FNARH) (ed.), Nancy, France, Éditions de l’Est, 1988.15. S. F. B. Morse, Improvement in Electric Telegraphs, US Patent 6420, May 1, 1849.

Claude Chappe and the First Telecommunication Network (Without Electricity)

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Claude Chappe and the First Telecommunication Network (Without Electricity)

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