Kroeze, W.K.

Roth, B.L.

Sheffler, D.J.

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute a large and diverse family of proteins whose primary function is to transduce extracellular stimuli into intracellular signals. They are among the largest and most diverse protein families in mammalian genomes. On the basis of homology with rhodopsin, they are predicted to contain seven membrane-spanning helices, an extracellular N-terminus and an intracellular C-terminus. This gives rise to their other names, the 7-TM receptors or the heptahelical receptors. GPCRs transduce extracellular stimuli to give intracellular signals through interaction of their intracellular domains with heterotrimeric G proteins, and the crystal structure of one member of this group, bovine rhodopsin, has recently been solved (Palczewski et al., 2000). The presence of GPCRs in the genomes of bacteria, yeast, plants, nematodes and other invertebrate groups argues in favor of a relatively early evolutionary origin of this group of molecules. The diversity of GPCRs is dictated both by the multiplicity of stimuli to which they respond, as well as by the variety of intracellular signalling pathways they activate. These include light, neurotransmitters, odorants, biogenic amines, lipids, proteins, amino acids, hormones, nucleotides, chemokines and, undoubtedly, many others. In addition, there are at least 18 different human Ga proteins to which GPCRs can be coupled (Hermans, 2003; Wong, 2003). These Ga proteins form heterotrimeric complexes with G b subunits, of which there are at least 5 types, and Gg subunits, of which there are at least 11 types (Hermans, 2003). Estimates of the number of GPCRs in the human genome vary widely. Based on their sequences, as well as on their known or suspected functions, there are estimated to be five or six major classes of GPCR. In a recent analysis of th

Wesley K. Kroeze

Douglas J

Bryan L. Roth

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G-protein-coupled Receptors at a Glance

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G-protein-coupledreceptors at a glanceWesley K. Kroeze, Douglas J.Sheffler and Bryan L. Roth*Departments of Biochemistry, Neurosciences andPsychiatry, NIMH Psychoactive Drug ScreeningProgram, Case Western Reserve University, Schoolof Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA*Author for correspondence(e-mail: roth@biocserver.cwru.edu)Journal of Cell Science 116, 4867-4869 Published by The Company of Biologists 2003doi:10.1242/jcs.00902G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)constitute a large and diverse family ofproteins whose primary function is totransduce extracellular stimuli intointracellular signals. They are among thelargest and most diverse protein familiesin mammalian genomes. On the basis ofhomology with rhodopsin, they arepredicted to contain seven membrane-spanning helices, an extracellular N-terminus and an intracellular C-terminus. This gives rise to their othernames, the 7-TM receptors or theheptahelical receptors. GPCRs transduceextracellular stimuli to give intracellularsignals through interaction of theirintracellular domains withheterotrimeric G proteins, and the crystalstructure of one member of this group,bovine rhodopsin, has recently beensolved (Palczewski et al., 2000).The presence of GPCRs in the genomesof bacteria, yeast, plants, nematodes andother invertebrate groups argues in favorof a relatively early evolutionary originof this group of molecules. The diversityof GPCRs is dictated both by themultiplicity of stimuli to which theyrespond, as well as by the variety ofintracellular signalling pathways theyactivate. These include light,neurotransmitters, odorants, biogenicamines, lipids, proteins, amino acids,hormones, nucleotides, chemokines and,undoubtedly, many others. In addition,there are at least 18 different human Gαproteins to which GPCRs can be coupled(Hermans, 2003; Wong, 2003). TheseGα proteins form heterotrimericcomplexes with Gβ subunits, of whichthere are at least 5 types, and Gγsubunits, of which there are at least 11types (Hermans, 2003). Estimates of the number of GPCRs in thehuman genome vary widely. Based ontheir sequences, as well as on theirknown or suspected functions, there areestimated to be five or six major classesof GPCR. In a recent analysis of theCell Science at a Glance 4867(See poster insert)emokinesAgonists: light, peptides, neurotransmitters, amino acids, hormones, lipids and chGPCR activation  Journal of Cell Science 2003 (116, pp. 4867-4869)GPR142GPR26GPR78GPR61GPR62GPR135GPR88GPR22GPR119GPR131ACM1TAA1AAA1ABBEHH3RHH4RRRTRGPR3GPR6GPR12CB1RCB2REDG1EDG3EDG5EDG8EDG6EDG2EDG4EDG7AA1RAA3RAA2BGPR21GPR52NTR2NMUR1GHSRMTLRTRFRBRS3GRPRNMBRETBRETB2GPR37CCKRNY1RML1BGPR84OPN4RGRFSHRLSHRTSHRLGR5LGR6LGR7LGR8GPR120AG2RAG2SBRB1BRB2IL8ACCCKR6CKR9CKRBCCR4CKCCR11RDC1GPR15GPR25CML2U2URGPR100GPR2GPR145GALTPAR1PAR2PAR3PAR4P2Y4P2YR12Y9PR17CLT1CLT2PAFRGPR4GPR68GPR65P2YCP2Y13P2YXFKSG78BGPR40GPR41GPR42GPR43GPR18GPR141C3Q8TDTMASGPR75GPR82V2RGRHRGRR2PE21P PE22 PI2RPE24SRB3GPR85GPR27OPSXBETABETADELTADELTADELTAGAMMAGAMMAALPHAALPHAβγGαqGαiGαsGβγ signalling Gα signallingDesensitizationInternalizationGαGβGγβ-ArrestinGPCR GPCRGrou  A GPCRspGq coupledGq/Gi coupledGi coupledGi/Gs coupledGs coupledGq/Gs coupledGq/Gi/Gs coupledSeratoninAdrenergicTrace amineHistamineDopamineMuscarinicAmine receptorsAC (+)Na+ Channel (+)Cl– Channel (+)VSCC (+)PLCβ1-PLCβ3 (+)ACII and ACIV (+)ACI (–)GIRK (+)PI3K (+)NRTK (+)VSCC (–)PLCβ (+)ACI, ACIII, ACV and ACVI (–)K+ Channel (+)Cl– Channel (+)VSCC (–)AMINE"MECA"OPSINCHEMOKINEPEPTIDEPURINEPURNEE4868GPCRs in the human genome, more than800 GPCRs were listed (Fredriksson etal., 2003). Of this total, 701 were in therhodopsin family (type A) and, of these,241 were non-olfactory (Fredriksson etal., 2003). According to this analysis,there are approximately 460 type Aolfactory receptors, although estimatesrange from 322 (Glusman et al., 2001;Takeda et al., 2002) to 900 (Venter et al.,2001), of which 347 have already beencloned (Zozulya et al., 2001). This largenumber of olfactory receptors accountsfor the ability of humans to detect a widevariety of exogenous (olfactory) ligands.A study similar to that of Fredriksson etal. (Fredriksson et al., 2003) identified367 human endoGPCRs and 392 mouseendoGPCRs (Vassilatis et al., 2003); theterm endoGPCR refers to GPCRs forendogenous (non-olfactory) ligands. Inview of the known existence ofalternatively spliced variants and editingisoforms of GPCRs, it is likely that thetrue number of GPCRs will never beknown and is much higher thanestimated.The tree shown illustrates therelationships among the primary proteinsequences of 274 type A rhodopsin-likeGPCRs; for clarity, the secretin familyreceptors (of which there are 15), theadhesion receptor family (24), theglutamate receptor family (15) and thefrizzled/taste2 receptor family (24) werenot included. To construct this tree, thelist of receptors used by Fredriksson etal. (Fredriksson et al., 2003) served as astarting point, and newly discovered‘orphan’ receptors were added to the list(http://kidb.bioc.cwru.edu/rothlab/jalview/viewJalView.html). The protein sequence of each receptor wasobtained, and the sequences of the N- andC-termini, which are of variable lengthand show little similarity among thereceptors, were trimmed manually. Theprotein sequences were then aligned andthe tree was drawn using the ClustalWserver (http://clustalw.genome.ad.jp). Analignment file is available athttp://kidb.bioc.cwru.edu/rothlab/jalview/viewJalView.html and can be examinedwith a more viewer-friendly interfaceusing the JalView applet at that site. TheG-protein-coupling information in theposter is derived from the review by Wong(Wong, 2003). The groupings of the receptors in theposter are thus similar, but not identical,to those of Fredriksson et al.(Fredriksson et al., 2003). For example,Fredriksson’s α, β, γ and δ groups,which appear to be ‘monophyletic’ intheir tree, were not monophyletic inours; this is likely to be due to slightdifferences in the options used in the twoalignments, and the relative imprecisionof the location of the roots of thebranches in both trees. Interestingly, theorphan receptors GPR57 and GPR58were grouped with the trace aminereceptors, and comparison of theirsequences indicates that these orphansprobably constitute the humanequivalent of the type 2 trace aminereceptors of rodents. Thus, trees of thistype may serve to help in the process of‘de-orphanizing’ receptors.How do GPCRs work?The first step in signal transduction isligand binding. The nature of GPCRligand-binding sites is best studied by acombination of site-directedmutagenesis, molecular modelling of thereceptors and screening of large numbersof potential ligands. Our group curatesthe largest publicly accessible databaseof ligand affinities as part of thePsychoactive Drug Screening Program(http://pdsp.cwru.edu), while the mostcomprehensive database of the effects ofmutations in GPCRs upon ligandbinding can be found at http://www-grap.fagmed.uit.no. Agonist binding isfollowed by a change in theconformation of the receptor that mayinvolve disruption of a strong ionicinteraction between the third and sixthtransmembrane helices (Ballesteros etal., 2001; Shapiro et al., 2002), whichfacilitates activation of the G-proteinheterotrimer. Depending on the type ofG protein to which the receptor iscoupled, a variety of downstreamsignalling pathways can be activated(reviewed by Marinissen and Gutkind,2001; Neves et al., 2002). Signalling isthen attenuated (desensitized) by GPCRinternalization, which is facilitated byarrestin binding (Ferguson, 2001).Signalling, desensitization and eventualresensitization are regulated by complexinteractions of various intracellulardomains of the GPCRs with numerousintracellular proteins (Hall andLefkowitz, 2003; Bockaert et al., 2003).Although many studies have used β-adrenergic receptors as prototypicalGPCRs, it has become increasingly clearthat much more can be learned bysystematic study of other receptors. Ourstudies of the serotonin 5-HT2Areceptor, for instance, showed thatGPCR internalization anddesensitization can occur by arrestin-independent pathways (Bhatnagar et al.,2001; Gray et al., 2003) and similarfindings have been reported for otherGPCRs (Lee et al., 1998). Interactions ofGPCRs with other proteins, includingcytoskeletal components such as PSD-95(Hall and Lefkowitz, 2002; Xia et al.,2003), are increasingly being found to beimportant for regulating the activity,targeting and trafficking of GPCRs.GPCRs are attractive targets formagic bulletsAlthough the biology of GPCRs iscertainly intriguing, their ultimateimportance is underscored by the factthat at least one third (Robas et al., 2003)and perhaps as many as half (Flower,1999) of currently marketed drugs targetGPCRs, although only 10% of GPCRsare known drug targets (Vassilatis et al.,2003). As new functions for GPCRs arediscovered, especially for the orphanGPCRs for which no function iscurrently known, the number of drugsthat target GPCRs can only be expectedto increase. This is a focus of intenseresearch effort, both in academia and inindustry.In addition to biological studies of thetypes summarized above, muchexcitement remains in the field becauseof the continuing de-orphanization ofGPCRs and the subsequent elucidationof their pharmacology and physiology. Once a large enough panel of GPCRs hasbeen obtained and comprehensivelycharacterized, a systematic analysis ofthe ‘receptorome’ (the portion of theproteome encoding receptors) can yieldimportant discoveries. We have usedsuch an approach to discover themolecular mechanisms responsible forserious drug side-effects – for example,phen/fen-induced heart diseaseJournal of Cell Science 116 (24)(Rothman et al., 2000) and weight gainassociated with the use of atypicalantipsychotics (Kroeze et al., 2003).Additionally, screening the receptoromehas been used to elucidate the actions ofnatural compounds and to obtainvalidated molecular targets for drugdiscovery (e.g. Roth et al., 2002).ReferencesBallesteros, J. A., Jensen, A. D., Liapakis, G.,Rasmussen, S. G., Shi, L., Gether, U. andJavitch, J. A. (2001). Activation of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor involves disruption of an ioniclock between the cytoplasmic ends oftransmembrane segments 3 and 6. J. Biol. Chem.276, 29171-29177.Bhatnagar, A., Willins, D. L., Gray, J. A.,Woods, J., Benovic, J. L. and Roth, B. L. (2001).The dynamin-dependent, arrestin-independentinternalization of 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A (5-HT2A) serotonin receptors reveals differentialsorting of arrestins and 5-HT2A receptors duringendocytosis. J. Biol. Chem.276, 8269-8277.Bockaert, J., Marin, P., Dumuis, A. and Fagni,L. (2003). The ‘magic tail’ of G protein-coupledreceptors: an anchorage for functional proteinnetworks. FEBS Lett.546, 65-72.Ferguson, S. S. G. (2001). Evolving concepts inG protein-coupled receptor endocytosis: the role inreceptor desensitization and signaling. Pharmacol.Rev. 53, 1-24.Flower, D. R. (1999). Modelling G-protein-coupled receptors for drug design. Biochim.Biophys. Acta.1422, 207-234.Fredriksson, R., Lagerstrom, M. C., Lundin, L.G. and Schioth, H. B. (2003). The G-protein-coupled receptors in the human genome form fivemain families. Phylogenetic analysis, paralogongroups, and fingerprints. Mol. Pharmacol. 63,1256-1272.Glusman, G., Yanai, I., Rubin, I. and Lancet, D.(2001). The complete human olfactory subgenome.Genome Res.11, 685-702.Gray, J. A., Bhatnagar, A., Gurevich, V. V. andRoth, B. L. (2003). The interaction of aconstitutively active arrestin with the arrestin-insensitive 5-HT(2A) receptor induces agonist-independent internalization. Mol. Pharmacol.63,961-972.Hall, R. A. and Lefkowitz, R. J. (2002).Regulation of G protein-coupled receptor signalingby scaffold proteins. Circ. Res.91, 672-680.Hermans, E. (2003). Biochemical andpharmacological control of the multiplicity ofcoupling at G-protein-coupled receptors.Pharmacol. Ther.99, 25-44.Kroeze, W. K., Hufeisen, S. J., Popadak, B. A.,Renock, S. M., Steinberg, S., Ernsberger, P.,Jayathilake, K., Meltzer, H. A. and Roth, B. L.(2003) H1-histamine receptor affinity predictsshort-term weight gain for typical and atypicalantipsychotic drugs. Neuropsychopharmacology28, 519-526.Lee, K. B., Pals-Rylaarsdam, R., Benovic, J. L.and Hosey, M. M. (1998). Arrestin-independentinternalization of the m1, m3, and m4 subtypes ofmuscarinic cholinergic receptors. J Biol. Chem.273, 12967-12972.Marinissen, M. J. and Gutkind, J. S. (2001). G-protein-coupled receptors and signaling networks:emerging paradigms. Trends Pharmacol. Sci.22,368-375.Neves, S. R., Ram, P. T. and Iyengar, R. (2002).G protein pathways. Science 296, 1636-1639.Palczewski, K., Kumasaka, T., Hori, T.,Behnke, C. A., Motoshima, H., Fox, B. A., LeTrong, I., Teller, D. C., Okada, T., Stenkamp,R. E., Yamamoto, M. and Miyano, M. (2000).Crystal structure of rhodopsin: a G protein-coupledreceptor. Science 289, 739-745.Robas, N., O’Reilly, M., Katugampola, S. andFidock, M. (2003). Maximizing serendipity:strategies for identifying ligands for orphan G-protein-coupled receptors. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol.3, 121-126.Roth, B. L., Baner, K., Westkaemper, R.,Siebert, D., Rice, K. C., Steinberg, S.,Ernsberger, P. and Rothman, R. B. 2002.Salvinorin A: a potent naturally occuringnonnitrogenous kappa opioid selective agonist.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA99, 11934-11939.Rothman, R. B., Baumann, M. H., Savage, J. E.,Rauser, L., McBride, A., Hufeisen, S. J. andRoth, B. L. (2000). Evidence for possibleinvolvement of 5-HT(2B) receptors in the cardiacvalvulopathy associated with fenfluramine andother serotonergic medications. Circulation 102,2836-2841.Shapiro, D. A., Kristiansen, K., Weiner, D. M.,Kroeze, W. K. and Roth, B. L. (2002). Evidencefor a model of agonist-induced activation of 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A serotonin receptors thatinvolves the disruption of a strong ionic interactionbetween helices 3 and 6. J Biol Chem277, 11441-11449.Takeda, S., Kadowaki, S., Haga, T., Takaesu, H.and Mitaku, S. (2002). Identification of G protein-coupled receptor genes from the human genomesequence. FEBS Lett.520, 97-101.Vassilatis, D. K., Hohmann, J. G., Zeng, H., Li,F., Ranchalis, J. E., Mortrud, M. T., Brown, A.,Rodriguez, S. S., Weller, J. R., Wright, A. C.,Bergmann, J. E. and Gaitanaris, G. A. (2003).The G protein-coupled receptor repertoires ofhuman and mouse. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA100,4903-4908.Venter, J. C., Adams, M. D., Myers, E. W., Li,P. W., Mural, R. J., Sutton, G. G., Smith, H. O.,Yandell, M., Evans, C. A., Holt, R. A. et al.(2001). The sequence of the human genome.Science291, 1304-1351.Wong, S. K. F. (2003). G protein selectivity isregulated by multiple intracellular regions ofGPCRs. Neurosignals12, 1-12.Xia, Z., Gray, J. A., Compton-Toth, B. A. andRoth, B. L. (2003). A direct interaction of PSD-95with 5-HT2A serotonin receptors regulatesreceptor trafficking and signal transduction. J.Biol. Chem.278, 21901-21908.Zozulya, S., Echeverri, F. and Nguyen, T.(2001). The human olfactory receptor repertoire.Genome Biol.2, RESEARCH0018.1-0018.12.Cell Science at a Glance 4869Cell Science at a Glance on the WebElectronic copies of the poster insert areavailable in the online version of this articleat jcs.biologists.org. The JPEG images canbe downloaded for printing or used asslides.CommentariesJCS Commentaries highlight and critically discuss recent exciting work that will interest thoseworking in cell biology, molecular biology, genetics and related disciplines. These short reviews arecommissioned from leading figures in the field and are subject to rigorous peer-review and in-houseeditorial appraisal. Each issue of the journal contains at least two Commentaries. JCS thus providesreaders with more than 50 Commentaries over the year, which cover the complete spectrum of cellscience. Although we discourage submission of unsolicited Commentaries to the journal, ideas for futurearticles – in the form of a short proposal and some key references – are welcome and should be sentto the Executive Editor at the address below.Journal of Cell Science, Bidder Building, 140 Cowley Rd, Cambridge, UK CB4 0DLE-mail: jcs@biologists.com   http://jcs.biologists.org

G-protein-coupled receptors at a glance

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G-protein-coupled receptors at a glance

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